Affinity shift of ATP upon glycerol binding to a glycerol kinase from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis KOD1

Glycerol kinase (GK) is a key enzyme of glycerol metabolism. It participates in glycolysis and lipid membrane biosynthesis. A hexamer of GK from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis KOD1(Tk-GK) was identified as a substrate-binding form of the enzyme. Here, the X-ray crystal structure analysis and the biochemical analysis was done and the relationships between its unique oligomer structure and substrate binding affinity were investigated. Wild type GK and mutant K271E GK, which disrupts the hexamer formation interface, were crystallized with and without their substrates and analyzed at 2.19-3.05 Å resolution. In the absence of glycerol, Tk-GK was a dimer in solution. In the presence of its glycerol substrate, however, it became a hexamer consisting of three symmetrical dimers about the threefold axis. Through glycerol binding, all Tk-GK molecules in the hexamer were in closed form as a result of domain-motion. The closed form of Tk-GK had tenfold higher ATP affinity than the open form of Tk-GK. The hexamer structure stabilized the closed conformation and enhanced ATP binding affinity when the GK was bound to glycerol. This molecular mechanism is quite simple activity regulation mechanism among known GKs.

Crystal structure of the Fab region of a neutralizing antibody against granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor

An increased level of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor has a potential role in the development of autoimmune diseases, and the neutralization of its activity by monoclonal antibodies is a promising therapy for some diseases. Here, the crystal structure of the Fab region of EV1007, a fully human antibody expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells that was developed from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, is described. The structure closely resembles that of MB007, which is the Fab region of the same antibody expressed in Escherichia coli [Blech et al. (2012), Biochem. J. 447, 205-215], except at the hinge regions between the immunoglobulin domains and the H3 loop region. This paper presents evidence for the flexibility of the hinge and H3 loop regions of the antibody based on the comparison of two independently solved crystal structures.

Structural Basis for the Serratia marcescens Lipase Secretion System: Crystal Structures of the Membrane Fusion Protein and Nucleotide-Binding Domain

Serratia marcescens secretes a lipase, LipA, through a type I secretion system (T1SS). The T1SS for LipA, the Lip system, is composed of an inner membrane ABC transporter with its nucleotide-binding domains (NBD), LipB, a membrane fusion protein, LipC, and an outer membrane channel protein, LipD. Passenger protein secreted by this system has been functionally and structurally characterized well, but relatively little information about the transporter complex is available. Here, we report the crystallographic studies of LipC without the membrane anchor region, LipC-, and the NBD of LipB (LipB-NBD). LipC- crystallographic analysis has led to the determination of the structure of the long α-helical and lipoyl domains, but not the area where it interacts with LipB, suggesting that the region is flexible without LipB. The long α-helical domain has three α-helices, which interacts with LipD in the periplasm. LipB-NBD has the common overall architecture and ATP hydrolysis activity of ABC transporter NBDs. Using the predicted models of full-length LipB and LipD, the overall structural insight into the Lip system is discussed.

Structure, activity, and stability of metagenome-derived glycoside hydrolase family 9 endoglucanase with an N-terminal Ig-like domain

A metagenome-derived glycoside hydrolase family 9 enzyme with an N-terminal immunoglobulin-like (Ig-like) domain, leaf-branch compost (LC)-CelG, was characterized and its crystal structure was determined. LC-CelG did not hydrolyze p-nitrophenyl cellobioside but hydrolyzed CM-cellulose, indicating that it is endoglucanase. LC-CelG exhibited the highest activity at 70°C and >80% of the maximal activity at a broad pH range of 5-9. Its denaturation temperature was 81.4°C, indicating that LC-CelG is a thermostable enzyme. The structure of LC-CelG resembles those of CelD from Clostridium thermocellum (CtCelD), Cel9A from Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius (AaCel9A), and cellobiohydrolase CbhA from C. thermocellum (CtCbhA), which show relatively low (29-31%) amino acid sequence identities to LC-CelG. Three acidic active site residues are conserved as Asp194, Asp197, and Glu558 in LC-CelG. Ten of the thirteen residues that form the substrate binding pocket of AaCel9A are conserved in LC-CelG. Removal of the Ig-like domain reduced the activity and stability of LC-CelG by 100-fold and 6.3°C, respectively. Removal of the Gln40- and Asp99-mediated interactions between the Ig-like and catalytic domains destabilized LC-CelG by 5.0°C without significantly affecting its activity. These results suggest that the Ig-like domain contributes to the stabilization of LC-CelG mainly due to the Gln40- and Asp99-mediated interactions. Because the LC-CelG derivative lacking the Ig-like domain accumulated in Escherichia coli cells mostly in an insoluble form and this derivative accumulated in a soluble form exhibited very weak activity, the Ig-like domain may be required to make the conformation of the active site functional and prevent aggregation of the catalytic domain.

Structural and biochemical characterization of a metagenome-derived esterase with a long N-terminal extension

The genes encoding six novel esterolytic/lipolytic enzymes, termed LC-Est1∼6, were isolated from a fosmid library of a leaf-branch compost metagenome by functional screening using tributyrin agar plates. These enzymes greatly vary in size and amino acid sequence. The highest identity between the amino acid sequence of each enzyme and that available from the database varies from 44 to 73%. Of these metagenome-derived enzymes, LC-Est1 is characterized by the presence of a long N-terminal extension (LNTE, residues 26-283) between a putative signal peptide (residues 1-25) and a C-terminal esterase domain (residues 284-510). A putative esterase from Candidatus Solibacter usitatus (CSu-Est) is the only protein, which shows the significant amino acid sequence identity (46%) to the entire region of LC-Est1. To examine whether LC-Est1 exhibits activity and its LNTE is important for activity and stability of the esterase domain, LC-Est1 (residues 26-510), LC-Est1C (residues 284-510), and LC-Est1C* (residues 304-510) were overproduced in E. coli, purified, and characterized. LC-Est1C* was only used for structural analysis. The crystal structure of LC-Est1C* highly resembles that of the catalytic domain of Thermotoga maritima esterase, suggesting that LNTE is not required for folding of the esterase domain. The enzymatic activity of LC-Est1C was lower than that of LC-Est1 by 60%, although its substrate specificity was similar to that of LC-Est1. LC-Est1C was less stable than LC-Est1 by 3.3°C. These results suggest that LNTE of LC-Est1 rather exists as an independent domain but is required for maximal activity and stability of the esterase domain.

Structure and stability of metagenome-derived glycoside hydrolase family 12 cellulase (LC-CelA) a homolog of Cel12A from Rhodothermus marinus

•

Ten novel cellulases, LC-CelA–J, were isolated from leaf–branch compost by a metagenomic approach.

•

LC-CelA was characterized.

•

The structure, activity, and stability of LC-CelA were similar to those of Cel12A from Rhodothermus marinus.

•

Glu34-mediated hydrogen bonds and two disulfide bonds contribute to the stabilization of LC-CelA.

Ten genes encoding novel cellulases with putative signal peptides at the N-terminus, termed pre-LC-CelA–J, were isolated from a fosmid library of a leaf–branch compost metagenome by functional screening using agar plates containing carboxymethyl cellulose and trypan blue. All the cellulases except pre-LC-CelG have a 14–29 residue long flexible linker (FL) between the signal peptide and the catalytic domain. LC-CelA without a signal peptide (residues 20–261), which shows 76% amino acid sequence identity to Cel12A from Rhodothermus marinus (RmCel12A), was overproduced in Escherichiacoli, purified and characterized. LC-CelA exhibited its highest activity across a broad pH range (pH 5–9) and at 90 °C, indicating that LC-CelA is a highly thermostable cellulase, like RmCel12A. The crystal structure of LC-CelA was determined at 1.85 Å resolution and is nearly identical to that of RmCel12A determined in a form without the FL. Both proteins contain two disulfide bonds. LC-CelA has a 16-residue FL (residues 20–35), most of which is not visible in the electron density map, probably due to structural disorder. However, Glu34 and Pro35 form hydrogen bonds with the central region of the protein. ΔFL-LC-CelA (residues 36–261) and E34A-LC-CelA with a single Glu34 → Ala mutation were therefore constructed and characterized. ΔFL-LC-CelA and E34A-LC-CelA had lower melting temperatures (T_m) than LC-CelA by 14.7 and 12.0 °C respectively. The T_m of LC-CelA was also decreased by 28.0 °C in the presence of dithiothreitol. These results suggest that Glu34-mediated hydrogen bonds and the two disulfide bonds contribute to the stabilization of LC-CelA.

Structural basis for salt-dependent folding of ribonuclease H1 from halophilic archaeon Halobacterium sp. NRC-1

RNase H1 from extreme halophilic archaeon Halobacterium sp. NRC-1 (Halo-RNase H1) requires ⩾2M NaCl, ⩾10mM MnCl2, or ⩾300mM MgCl2 for folding. To understand the structural basis for this salt-dependent folding of Halo-RNase H1, the crystal structure of Halo-RNase H1 was determined in the presence of 10mM MnCl2. The structure of Halo-RNase H1 highly resembles those of metagenome-derived LC11-RNase H1 and Sulfolobus tokodaii RNase H1 (Sto-RNase H1), except that it contains two Mn(2+) ions at the active site and has three bi-aspartate sites on its surface. To examine whether negative charge repulsion at these sites are responsible for low-salt denaturation of Halo-RNase H1, a series of the mutant proteins of Halo-RNase H1 at these sites were constructed. The far-UV CD spectra of these mutant proteins measured in the presence of various concentrations of NaCl suggest that these mutant proteins exist in an equilibrium between a partially folded state and a folded state. However, the fraction of the protein in a folded state is nearly 0% for the active site mutant, 40% for the bi-aspartate site mutant, and 70% for the mutant at both sites in the absence of salt. The active site mutant requires relatively low concentration (∼0.5M) of salt for folding. These results suggest that suppression of negative charge repulsion at both active and bi-aspartate sites by salt is necessary to yield a folded protein.

Role of N-terminal extension of Bacillus stearothermophilus RNase H2 and C-terminal extension of Thermotoga maritima RNase H2

Bacillus stearothermophilus RNase H2 (BstRNH2) and Thermotoga maritima RNase H2 (TmaRNH2) have N-terminal and C-terminal extensions, respectively, as compared with Aquifex aeolicus RNase H2 (AaeRNH2). To analyze the role of these extensions, BstRNH2 and TmaRNH2 without these extensions were constructed, and their biochemical properties were compared with those of their intact partners and AaeRNH2. The far-UV CD spectra of all proteins were similar, suggesting that the protein structure is not significantly altered by removal of these extensions. However, both the junction ribonuclease and RNase H activities of BstRNH2 and TmaRNH2, as well as their substrate-binding affinities, were considerably decreased by removal of these extensions. The stability of BstRNH2 and TmaRNH2 was also decreased by removal of these extensions. The activity, substrate binding affinity and stability of TmaRNH2 without the C-terminal 46 residues were partly restored by the attachment of the N-terminal extension of BstRNH2. These results suggest that the N-terminal extension of BstRNH2 functions as a substrate-binding domain and stabilizes the RNase H domain. Because the C-terminal extension of TmaRNH2 assumes a helix hairpin structure and does not make direct contact with the substrate, this extension is probably required to make the conformation of the substrate-binding site functional. AaeRNH2 showed comparable junction ribonuclease activity to those of BstRNH2 and TmaRNH2, and was more stable than these proteins, indicating that bacterial RNases H2 do not always require an N-terminal or C-terminal extension to increase activity, substrate-binding affinity, and/or stability.

Crystallization and X-ray structure determination of a thermoalkalophilic lipase from Geobacillus SBS-4S

A thermoalkalophilic lipase (LIPSBS) from the newly isolated Geobacillus strain SBS-4S which hydrolyzes a wide range of fatty acids has been characterized. In the present study, the crystallization of purified LIPSBS using the sitting-drop vapour-diffusion method and its X-ray diffraction studies are described. The crystals belonged to the orthorhombic space group P212121, with unit-cell parameters a = 55.13, b = 71.75, c = 126.26 Å. The structure was determined at 1.6 Å resolution by the molecular-replacement method using the lipase from G. stearothermophilus L1 as a model.

Structure and stability of a thermostable carboxylesterase from the thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus tokodaii

The hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) family is comprised of carboxylesterases and lipases with similarity to mammalian HSL. Thermophilic enzymes of this family have a high potential for use in biocatalysis. We prepared and crystallized a carboxylesterase of the HSL family from Sulfolobus tokodaii (Sto-Est), and determined its structures in the presence and absence of an inhibitor. Sto-Est forms a dimer in solution and the crystal structure suggests the presence of a stable biological dimer. We identified a residue close to the dimer interface, R267, which is conserved in archaeal enzymes of HSL family and is in close proximity to the same residue from the other monomer. Mutations of R267 to Glu, Gly and Lys were conducted and the resultant R267 mutants were characterized and crystallized. The structures of R267E, R267G and R267K are highly similar to that of Sto-Est with only slight differences in atomic coordinates. The dimerized states of R267E and R267G are unstable under denaturing conditions or at high temperature, as shown by a urea-induced dimer dissociation experiment and molecular dynamics simulation. R267E is the most unstable mutant protein, followed by R267G and R267K, as shown by the thermal denaturation curve and optimum temperature for activity. From the data, we discuss the importance of R267 in maintaining the dimer integrity of Sto-Est.

Characteristic features of kynurenine aminotransferase allosterically regulated by (alpha)-ketoglutarate in cooperation with kynurenine

Kynurenine aminotransferase from Pyrococcus horikoshii OT3 (PhKAT), which is a homodimeric protein, catalyzes the conversion of kynurenine (KYN) to kynurenic acid (KYNA). We analyzed the transaminase reaction mechanisms of this protein with pyridoxal-5′-phosphate (PLP), KYN and α-ketoglutaric acid (2OG) or oxaloacetic acid (OXA). 2OG significantly inhibited KAT activities in kinetic analyses, suggesting that a KYNA biosynthesis is allosterically regulated by 2OG. Its inhibitions evidently were unlocked by KYN. 2OG and KYN functioned as an inhibitor and activator in response to changes in the concentrations of KYN and 2OG, respectively. The affinities of one subunit for PLP or 2OG were different from that of the other subunit, as confirmed by spectrophotometry and isothermal titration calorimetry, suggesting that the difference of affinities between subunits might play a role in regulations of the KAT reaction. Moreover, we identified two active and allosteric sites in the crystal structure of PhKAT-2OG complexes. The crystal structure of PhKAT in complex with four 2OGs demonstrates that two 2OGs in allosteric sites are effector molecules which inhibit the KYNA productions. Thus, the combined data lead to the conclusion that PhKAT probably is regulated by allosteric control machineries, with 2OG as the allosteric inhibitor.

Structure and characterization of RNase H3 from Aquifex aeolicus

The crystal structure of ribonuclease H3 from Aquifex aeolicus (Aae-RNase H3) was determined at 2.0 Å resolution. Aae-RNase H3 consists of an N-terminal TATA box-binding protein (TBP)-like domain (N-domain) and a C-terminal RNase H domain (C-domain). The structure of the C-domain highly resembles that of Bacillus stearothermophilus RNase H3 (Bst-RNase H3), except that it contains three disulfide bonds, and the fourth conserved glutamate residue of the Asp-Glu-Asp-Glu active site motif (Glu198) is located far from the active site. These disulfide bonds were shown to contribute to hyper-stabilization of the protein. Non-conserved Glu194 was identified as the fourth active site residue. The structure of the N-domain without the C-domain also highly resembles that of Bst-RNase H3. However, the arrangement of the N-domain relative to the C-domain greatly varies for these proteins because of the difference in the linker size between the domains. The linker of Bst-RNase H3 is relatively long and flexible, while that of Aae-RNase H3 is short and assumes a helix formation. Biochemical characterizations of Aae-RNase H3 and its derivatives without the N- or C-domain or with a mutation in the N-domain indicate that the N-domain of Aae-RNase H3 is important for substrate binding, and uses the flat surface of the β-sheet for substrate binding. However, this surface is located far from the active site and on the opposite side to the active site. We propose that the N-domain of Aae-RNase H3 is required for initial contact with the substrate. The resulting complex may be rearranged such that only the C-domain forms a complex with the substrate.

Ca2+ regulates the Drosophila Stoned-A and Stoned-B proteins interaction with the C2B domain of Synaptotagmin-1

The dicistronic Drosophila stoned gene is involved in exocytosis and/or endocytosis of synaptic vesicles. Mutations in either stonedA or stonedB cause a severe disruption of neurotransmission in fruit flies. Previous studies have shown that the coiled-coil domain of the Stoned-A and the µ-homology domain of the Stoned-B protein can interact with the C2B domain of Synaptotagmin-1. However, very little is known about the mechanism of interaction between the Stoned proteins and the C2B domain of Synaptotagmin-1. Here we report that these interactions are increased in the presence of Ca(2+). The Ca(2+)-dependent interaction between the µ-homology domain of Stoned-B and C2B domain of Synaptotagmin-1 is affected by phospholipids. The C-terminal region of the C2B domain, including the tryptophan-containing motif, and the Ca(2+) binding loop region that modulate the Ca(2+)-dependent oligomerization, regulates the binding of the Stoned-A and Stoned-B proteins to the C2B domain. Stoned-B, but not Stoned-A, interacts with the Ca(2+)-binding loop region of C2B domain. The results indicate that Ca(2+)-induced self-association of the C2B domain regulates the binding of both Stoned-A and Stoned-B proteins to Synaptotagmin-1. The Stoned proteins may regulate sustainable neurotransmission in vivo by binding to Ca(2+)-bound Synaptotagmin-1 associated synaptic vesicles.

Activity, stability, and structure of metagenome-derived LC11-RNase H1, a homolog of Sulfolobus tokodaii RNase H1

Metagenome-derived LC11-RNase H1 is a homolog of Sulfolobus tokodaii RNase H1 (Sto-RNase H1). It lacks a C-terminal tail, which is responsible for hyperstabilization of Sto-RNase H1. Sto-RNase H1 is characterized by its ability to cleave not only an RNA/DNA hybrid but also a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). To examine whether LC11-RNase H1 also exhibits both RNase H and dsRNase activities, LC11-RNase H1 was overproduced in Escherichia coli, purified, and characterized. LC11-RNase H1 exhibited RNase H activity with similar metal ion preference, optimum pH, and cleavage mode of substrate with those of Sto-RNase H1. However, LC11-RNase H1 did not exhibit dsRNase activity at any condition examined. LC11-RNase H1 was less stable than Sto-RNases H1 and its derivative lacking the C-terminal tail (Sto-RNase H1ΔC6) by 37 and 13 °C in T(m) , respectively. To understand the structural bases for these differences, the crystal structure of LC11-RNase H1 was determined at 1.4 Å resolution. The LC11-RNase H1 structure is highly similar to the Sto-RNase H1 structure. However, LC11-RNase H1 has two grooves on protein surface, one containing the active site and the other containing DNA-phosphate binding pocket, while Sto-RNase H1 has one groove containing the active site. In addition, LC11-RNase H1 contains more cavities and buried charged residues than Sto-RNase H1. We propose that LC11-RNase H1 does not exhibit dsRNase activity because dsRNA cannot fit to the two grooves on protein surface and that LC11-RNase H1 is less stable than Sto-RNase H1ΔC6 because of the increase in cavity volume and number of buried charged residues.

Role of polar and nonpolar residues at the active site for PPIase activity of FKBP22 from Shewanella sp. SIB1

FKBP22 from the psychotropic bacterium Shewanella sp. SIB1 is a homodimeric protein with peptidyl prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) activity. According to a tertiary model, several nonpolar residues including Trp157 and Phe197 form a substrate-binding cavity, and Asp137 and Arg142, which form a salt bridge, are located at the edge of this cavity. To analyze the role of these residues, nine single (D137A, R142A, W157A/F/Y, F197A/L/Y/W) and one double (D137A/R142A) mutant protein of SIB1 FKBP22 were constructed. The far- and near-UV CD spectra of these mutant proteins suggest that the mutations at Asp137 and Arg142 do not seriously affect the protein structure, while those at Trp157 and Phe197 cause a local conformational change around the mutation site. Each mutation decreased the PPIase activities of SIB1 FKBP22 for peptide and protein substrates similarly without seriously affecting chaperone function. This result indicates that SIB1 FKBP22 does not require PPIase activity for chaperone function. The PPIase activities of R142A, D137A and D137A/R142A decreased in this order, suggesting that Asp137 and Arg142 play a principal and auxiliary role in catalytic function, respectively, but Arg142 can function as a substitute of Asp137. Because the PPIase activity of SIB1 FKBP22 was not fully lost by the removal of all polar residues around the active site, the desolvation effect may also contribute to the enzymatic activity. However, the mutations of Trp157 to Phe or Phe197 to Leu greatly decrease the enzymatic activity, suggesting that the shape of the substrate-binding cavity is also important for enzymatic activity.

Crystal structure of N-domain of FKBP22 from Shewanella sp. SIB1: dimer dissociation by disruption of Val-Leu knot

FK506-binding protein 22 (FKBP22) from the psychrotophic bacterium Shewanella sp. SIB1 (SIB1 FKBP22) is a homodimeric protein with peptidyl prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) activity. Each monomer consists of the N-terminal domain responsible for dimerization and C-terminal catalytic domain. To reveal interactions at the dimer interface of SIB1 FKBP22, the crystal structure of the N-domain of SIB1 FKBP22 (SN-FKBP22, residues 1-68) was determined at 1.9 Å resolution. SN-FKBP22 forms a dimer, in which each monomer consists of three helices (α1, α2, and α3N). In the dimer, two monomers have head-to-head interactions, in which residues 8-64 of one monomer form tight interface with the corresponding residues of the other. The interface is featured by the presence of a Val-Leu knot, in which Val37 and Leu41 of one monomer interact with Val41 and Leu37 of the other, respectively. To examine whether SIB1 FKBP22 is dissociated into the monomers by disruption of this knot, the mutant protein V37R/L41R-FKBP22, in which Val37 and Leu41 of SIB1 FKBP22 are simultaneously replaced by Arg, was constructed and biochemically characterized. This mutant protein was indistinguishable from the SIB1 FKBP22 derivative lacking the N-domain in oligomeric state, far-UV CD spectrum, thermal denaturation curve, PPIase activity, and binding ability to a folding intermediate of protein, suggesting that the N-domain of V37R/L41R-FKBP22 is disordered. We propose that a Val-Leu knot at the dimer interface of SIB1 FKBP22 is important for dimerization and dimerization is required for folding of the N-domain.

Stabilization by fusion to the C-terminus of hyperthermophile Sulfolobus tokodaii RNase HI: a possibility of protein stabilization tag

RNase HI from the hyperthermophile Sulfolobus tokodaii (Sto-RNase HI) is stabilized by its C-terminal residues. In this work, the stabilization effect of the Sto-RNase HI C-terminal residues was investigated in detail by thermodynamic measurements of the stability of variants lacking the disulfide bond (C58/145A), or the six C-terminal residues (ΔC6) and by structural analysis of ΔC6. The results showed that the C-terminal does not affect overall structure and stabilization is caused by local interactions of the C-terminal, suggesting that the C-terminal residues could be used as a “stabilization tag.” The Sto-RNase HI C-terminal residues (-IGCIILT) were introduced as a tag on three proteins. Each chimeric protein was more stable than its wild-type protein. These results suggested the possibility of a simple stabilization technique using a stabilization tag such as Sto-RNase HI C-terminal residues.

Crystal structure of stable protein CutA1 from psychrotrophic bacterium Shewanella sp. SIB1

CutA1 is widely found in bacteria, plants and animals, including humans. The functions of CutA1, however, have not been well clarified. It is known that CutA1s from Pyrococcus horikoshii, Thermus thermophilus and Oryza sativa unfold at temperatures remarkably higher than the growth temperatures of the host organisms. In this work the crystal structure of CutA1 from the psychrotrophic bacterium Shewanella sp. SIB1 (SIB1-CutA1) in a trimeric form was determined at 2.7 Å resolution. This is the first crystal structure of a psychrotrophic CutA1. The overall structure of SIB1-CutA1 is similar to those of CutA1 from Homo sapiens, Escherichia coli, Pyrococcus horikoshii, Thermus thermophilus, Termotoga maritima, Oryza sativa and Rattus norvergicus. A peculiarity is observed in the β2 strand. The β2 strand is divided into two short β strands, β2a and β2b, in SIB1-CutA1. A thermal denaturation experiment revealed that SIB1-CutA1 does not unfold completely at 363 K at pH 7.0, although Shewanella sp. SIB1 cannot grow at temperatures exceeding 303 K. These results indicate that the trimeric structural motif of CutA1 is the critical factor in its unusually high stability and suggest that CutA1 needs to maintain its high stability in order to function, even in psychrotrophs.

Protein core adaptability: crystal structures of the cavity-filling variants of Escherichia coli RNase HI

It has generally been accepted that an increase in protein stability is proportional to the increase in hydrophobicity. When a cavity is created by large-to-small substitutions of amino acid residues in protein cores, protein stability decreases 5.3 kJ/mol per single methyl(ene) group removal. In contrast, many reported cavity-filling mutations either failed to increase stability or produced marginal increases in stability; even in successful cases, the increase in stability was much lower than expected from the cost of single methyl(ene) group removal in cavity-creating mutations. Previously it was found that some cavity-filling mutant proteins at Ala52 in E. coli RNase HI increased stability, but decreased activity and they did not increase the stability to the degree expected by the hydrophobic effect alone. The present study attempted to structurally analyze these variant proteins, and it was found that substitutions have little effect on the overall fold but cause conformational strains with the neighboring residues. The present results and literature on cavity-creating/-filling variants provide insight into protein architecture, indicating that natural protein cores are able to accommodate larger side-chain residue by substitution; in other words, excess-packing may not be chosen in natural selection.

Highly active metallocarboxypeptidase from newly isolated Geobacillus strain SBS-4S: cloning and characterization

The carboxypeptidase gene from Geobacillus SBS-4S was cloned and sequenced. The sequence analysis displayed the gene consists of an open reading frame of 1503 nucleotides encoding a protein of 500 amino acids (CBP(SBS)). The amino acid sequence comparison revealed that CBP(SBS) exhibited a highest homology of 41.6% (identity) with carboxypeptidase Taq from Thermus aquaticus among the characterized proteases. CBP(SBS) contained an active site motif (265)HEXXH(269) which is conserved in family-M32 of carboxypeptidases. The gene was expressed with His-Tag utilizing Escherichia coli expression system and purified to apparent homogeneity. The purified CBP(SBS) showed highest activity at pH 7.5 and 70°C. The enzyme activity was metal ion dependent. Among metal ions highest activity was found in the presence of Co(2+). Thermostability studies of CBP(SBS) by circular dichroism spectroscopy demonstrated the melting temperature of the protein around 77°C. The enzyme exhibited K(m) and V(max) values of 14 mM and 10526 μmol min(-1) mg(-1) when carbobenzoxy-alanine-arginine was used as substrate. k(cat) and k(cat)/K(m) valves were 10175 s(-1) and 726 mM(-1) s(-1). To our knowledge this is the highest ever reported enzyme activity of a metallocarboxypeptidase and the first characterization of a metallocarboxypeptidase from genus Geobacillus.

Engineering of monomeric FK506-binding protein 22 with peptidyl prolyl cis-trans isomerase. Importance of a V-shaped dimeric structure for binding to protein substrate

FK506-binding protein 22 (FKBP22) from the psychrotrophic bacterium Shewanella sp. SIB1 is a homodimeric protein with peptidyl prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) (EC 5.2.1.8) activity. Each monomer consists of 205 amino acid residues. According to a tertiary model, SIB1 FKBP22 assumes a V-shaped structure, in which two monomers interact with each other at their N-termini. Each monomer consists of an N-terminal domain with a dimerization core and a C-terminal catalytic domain, which are separated by a 40-residue-long a-helix. To clarify the role of this V-shaped structure, we constructed a mutant protein, in which the N-domain is tandemly repeated through a flexible linker. This protein, termed NNC-FKBP22, is designed such that two repetitive N-domains are folded into a structure similar to that of the Shewanella sp. SIB1 FKBP22 wild-type protein (WT). NNC-FKBP22 was overproduced in Escherichia coli in a His-tagged form, purified and biochemically characterized. Gel-filtration chromatography and ultracentrifugation analyses indicate that NNC-FKBP22 exists as a monomer. Analysis of thermal denaturation using differential scanning calorimetry indicates that NNC-FKBP22 unfolds with two transitions, as does the WT protein. NNC-FKBP22 exhibited PPIase activity for both peptide and protein substrates. However, in contrast to its activity for peptide substrate, which was comparable to that of the WT protein, its activity for protein substrate was reduced by five- to six-fold, compared to that of the WT. Surface plasmon resonance analyses indicate that NNC-FKBP22 binds to a reduced form of a-lactalbumin with a six-fold weaker affinity than that of WT. These results suggest that a V-shaped structure of SIB1 FKBP22 is important for efficient binding to a protein substrate.

Destabilization of psychrotrophic RNase HI in a localized fashion as revealed by mutational and X-ray crystallographic analyses

The Arg97 --> Gly and Asp136 --> His mutations stabilized So-RNase HI from the psychrotrophic bacterium Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 by 5.4 and 9.7 degrees C, respectively, in T(m), and 3.5 and 6.1 kJ x mol(-1), respectively, in DeltaG(H2O). These mutations also stabilized the So-RNase HI derivative (4x-RNase HI) with quadruple thermostabilizing mutations in an additive manner. As a result, the resultant sextuple mutant protein (6x-RNase HI) was more stable than the wild-type protein by 28.8 degrees C in T(m) and 27.0 kJ x mol(-1) in DeltaG(H2O). To analyse the effects of the mutations on the protein structure, the crystal structure of the 6x-RNase HI protein was determined at 2.5 A resolution. The main chain fold and interactions of the side-chains of the 6x-RNase HI protein were basically identical to those of the wild-type protein, except for the mutation sites. These results indicate that all six mutations independently affect the protein structure, and are consistent with the fact that the thermostabilizing effects of the mutations are roughly additive. The introduction of favourable interactions and the elimination of unfavourable interactions by the mutations contribute to the stabilization of the 6x-RNase HI protein. We propose that So-RNase HI is destabilized when compared with its mesophilic and thermophilic counterparts in a localized fashion by increasing the number of amino acid residues unfavourable for protein stability.

Extracellular overproduction and preliminary crystallographic analysis of a family I.3 lipase

A family I.3 lipase from Pseudomonas sp. MIS38 was secreted from Escherichia coli cells to the external medium, purified and crystallized and preliminary crystallographic studies were performed. The crystal was grown at 277 K by the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion method. Native X-ray diffraction data were collected to 1.7 A resolution using synchrotron radiation at station BL38B1, SPring-8. The crystal belongs to space group P2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 48.79, b = 84.06, c = 87.04 A. Assuming the presence of one molecule per asymmetric unit, the Matthews coefficient V(M) was calculated to be 2.73 A3 Da(-1) and the solvent content was 55%.

Family I.3 lipase: bacterial lipases secreted by the type I secretion system

Based on the classification of bacterial lipolytic enzymes, family I.3 lipase is a member of the large group of Gram-negative bacterial true lipases. This lipase family is distinguished from other families not only by the amino acid sequence, but also by the secretion mechanism. Lipases of family I.3 are secreted via the well-known type I secretion system. Like most of proteins secreted via this system, family I.3 lipases are composed of two domains with distinct yet related functions. Recent years have seen an increasing amount of research on this lipase family, in terms of isolation, secretion mechanism, as well as biochemical and biophysical studies. This review describes our current knowledge on the structure-function relationships of family I.3 lipase, with an emphasis on its secretion mechanism.

Extracellular secretion of Escherichia coli alkaline phosphatase with a C-terminal tag by type I secretion system: purification and biochemical characterization

Type I secretion system (TISS) of Gram-negative bacteria permits proteins to be secreted directly from the cytoplasm to the external medium by a single, energy-coupled step. To examine whether this system can be used as an extracellular production system of recombinant proteins, Escherichia coli alkaline phosphatase (AP) was fused to a C-terminal region of Pseudomonas sp. MIS38 lipase (PML) and examined for secretion using the E.coli cells carrying the heterologous TISS. PML is one of the passenger proteins of TISS and contains 12 repetitive sequences and a secretion signal at the C-terminal region. The fusion protein was efficiently secreted to the extracellular medium, while AP was not secreted at all, indicating that the secretion of AP is promoted by a secretion signal of PML. The repetitive sequences were not so important for secretion of the fusion protein, because the secretion level of the fusion protein containing entire repeats ( approximately 10 mg/l culture) was only 2-fold higher than that of the fusion protein without repeats. The fusion protein purified from the culture supernatant existed as a homodimer, like AP, and was indistinguishable from AP in enzymatic properties and stability.

Importance of a repetitive nine-residue sequence motif for intracellular stability and functional structure of a family I.3 lipase

PML5 is a functional derivative of a family I.3 lipase from Pseudomonas sp. MIS38 and contains five repeats of a nine-residue sequence motif. Two aspartate residues within the second and third repetitive sequences of PML5 were replaced by Ala. The secretion level, intracellular accumulation level, and stability of the resultant mutant protein were greatly reduced as compared to those of PML5. In addition, this mutant protein was inactive and did not bind Ca2+ ion. We propose that the repetitive sequences of PML5 form a beta-roll structure in the cells and thereby contribute to the intracellular stability and secretion efficiency of the protein.