GAMYB-like genes, flowering, and gibberellin signaling in Arabidopsis

We have identified three Arabidopsis genes with GAMYB-like activity, AtMYB33, AtMYB65, and AtMYB101, which can substitute for barley (Hordeum vulgare) GAMYB in transactivating the barley alpha-amylase promoter. We have investigated the relationships between gibberellins (GAs), these GAMYB-like genes, and petiole elongation and flowering of Arabidopsis. Within 1 to 2 d of transferring plants from short- to long-day photoperiods, growth rate and erectness of petioles increased, and there were morphological changes at the shoot apex associated with the transition to flowering. These responses were accompanied by accumulation of GAs in the petioles (GA(1) by 11-fold and GA(4) by 3-fold), and an increase in expression of AtMYB33 at the shoot apex. Inhibition of GA biosynthesis using paclobutrazol blocked the petiole elongation induced by long days. Causality was suggested by the finding that, with GA treatment, plants flowered in short days, AtMYB33 expression increased at the shoot apex, and the petioles elongated and grew erect. That AtMYB33 may mediate a GA signaling role in flowering was supported by its ability to bind to a specific 8-bp sequence in the promoter of the floral meristem-identity gene, LEAFY, this same sequence being important in the GA response of the LEAFY promoter. One or more of these AtMYB genes may also play a role in the root tip during germination and, later, in stem tissue. These findings extend our earlier studies of GA signaling in the Gramineae to include a dicot species, Arabidopsis, and indicate that GAMYB-like genes may mediate GA signaling in growth and flowering responses.

GAMYB-like genes, flowering, and gibberellin signaling in Arabidopsis

We have identified three Arabidopsis genes with GAMYB-like activity, AtMYB33, AtMYB65, and AtMYB101, which can substitute for barley (Hordeum vulgare) GAMYB in transactivating the barley alpha-amylase promoter. We have investigated the relationships between gibberellins (GAs), these GAMYB-like genes, and petiole elongation and flowering of Arabidopsis. Within 1 to 2 d of transferring plants from short- to long-day photoperiods, growth rate and erectness of petioles increased, and there were morphological changes at the shoot apex associated with the transition to flowering. These responses were accompanied by accumulation of GAs in the petioles (GA(1) by 11-fold and GA(4) by 3-fold), and an increase in expression of AtMYB33 at the shoot apex. Inhibition of GA biosynthesis using paclobutrazol blocked the petiole elongation induced by long days. Causality was suggested by the finding that, with GA treatment, plants flowered in short days, AtMYB33 expression increased at the shoot apex, and the petioles elongated and grew erect. That AtMYB33 may mediate a GA signaling role in flowering was supported by its ability to bind to a specific 8-bp sequence in the promoter of the floral meristem-identity gene, LEAFY, this same sequence being important in the GA response of the LEAFY promoter. One or more of these AtMYB genes may also play a role in the root tip during germination and, later, in stem tissue. These findings extend our earlier studies of GA signaling in the Gramineae to include a dicot species, Arabidopsis, and indicate that GAMYB-like genes may mediate GA signaling in growth and flowering responses.

The control of flowering by vernalization

The process by which vernalization, the exposure of a germinating seed or a juvenile plant to a prolonged period of low temperature, promotes flowering in the adult plant has remained a mystery for many years. The recent isolation of one of the key genes involved in vernalization, FLOWERING LOCUS C, has now provided an insight into the molecular mechanism involved, including the role of DNA methylation.

Blue-light promotion of flowering is absent in hy4 mutants of Arabidopsis

Loss of a blue-light photoreceptor in the hy4 mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh substantially delayed flowering (> 100 d to flower vs. 40-50 d), especially with blue light exposure from lamps lacking much red (R) and/or far-red (FR) light. Red night breaks were promotory but flowering was still later for the hy4-101 mutant. However, with exposure to light from FR-rich lamps, flowering of all mutants was early and no different from the wild type. Thus, flowering of Arabidopsis involves a blue-light photoreceptor and other, often more effective photoreceptors. The latter may involve phytochrome photoresponses to R and FR, but with little or no phytochrome response to blue wave-lengths.

Flowering responses to altered expression of phytochrome in mutants and transgenic lines of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh

The long-day plant Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. flowers early in response to brief end-of-day (EOD) exposures to far-red light (FR) following a fluorescent short day of 8 h. FR promotion of flowering was nullified by subsequent brief red light (R) EOD exposure, indicating phytochrome involvement. The EOD response to R or FR is a robust measure of phytochrome action. Along with their wild-type (WT) parents, mutants deficient in either phytochrome A or B responded similarly to the EOD treatments. Thus, neither phytochrome A nor B exclusively regulated flowering, although phytochrome B controlled hypocotyl elongation. Perhaps a third phytochrome species is important for the EOD responses of the mutants and/or their flowering is regulated by the amount of the FR-absorbing form of phytochrome, irrespective of the phytochrome species. Overexpression of phytochrome A or phytochrome B resulted in differing photoperiod and EOD responses among the genotypes. The day-neutral overexpressor of phytochrome A had an EOD response similar to all of the mutants and WTs, whereas R EOD exposure promoted flowering in the overexpressor of phytochrome B and FR EOD exposure inhibited this promotion. The comparisons between relative flowering times and leaf numbers at flowering of the over-expressors and their WTs were not consistent across photoperiods and light treatments, although both phytochromes A and B contributed to regulating flowering of the transgenic plants.

DNA methylation, vernalization, and the initiation of flowering

Late-flowering ecotypes and mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana and the related crucifer Thlaspi arvense flower early after cold treatment (vernalization). Treatment with the DNA demethylating agent 5-azacytidine induced nonvernalized plants to flower significantly earlier than untreated controls. Cytidine at similar concentrations had no effect on time to flower. In contrast, late-flowering mutants that are insensitive to vernalization did not respond to 5-azacytidine treatment. Normal flowering time was reset in the progeny of plants induced to flower early with 5-azacytidine, paralleling the lack of inheritance of the vernalized condition. Arabidopsis plants, either cold-treated or 5-azacytidine-treated, had reduced levels of 5-methylcytosine in their DNA compared to nonvernalized plants. A Nicotiana plumbaginifolia cell line also showed a marked decrease in the level of 5-methylcytosine after treatment with either 5-azacytidine or low temperature. We suggest that DNA methylation provides a developmental control preventing early flowering in Arabidopsis and Thlaspi ecotypes. Vernalization, through its general demethylating effect, releases the block to flowering initiation. We propose that demethylation of a gene critical for flowering permits its transcription. We further suggest, on the basis of Thlaspi data, that the control affects transcription of kaurenoic acid hydroxylase, a key enzyme in the gibberellic acid biosynthetic pathway.

Effects of photoperiod on reproductive development of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) in a cool subtropical environment. II. Temperature interactions

The effects of temperature on the response to photoperiod by peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cultivars were examined under glasshouse and phytotron conditions at two locations (Kingaroy and Canberra). Two Virginia cultivars (Early Bunch and Robut 33-l), two Spanish cultivars (White Spanish and TMV-2) and a single Valencia (NC 17090) cultivar were grown in the experiments. White Spanish was common to both studies. Strong photoperiodxtemperature interactions were shown for all cultivars in both experiments, with the sensitivity of peg number to photoperiod increasing at higher temperatures. Photoperiod responses were all indicative of short-day (SD) response types, and were always expressed in post-flowering reproductive development. No effects of photoperiod on time to first flower were evident, but numbers of pegs and pods and total pod weight per plant were reduced in long (16 or 17 h) photoperiods. Data from field experiments at Kingaroy were pooled with those from the glasshouse and controlled environment studies to estimate the critical temperatures above which photoperiod sensitivity became significant. Hourly temperature readings were used to calculate a daily heat sum (�C h) above a base temperature of 10�C for each experiment. This index of the temperature condition proved satisfactory as a possible discriminatory method to describe environments based on likely photoperiod response. Environments where daily heat unit accumulations greater than 340-350�C h were recorded during the treatment period showed significant photoperiod responses. The possibility of minimum temperature being the predominant component of the temperaturexphotoperiod interaction is also discussed. This proved less effective in discriminating between environments for photoperiod response, but data were insufficient to discount this possibility and further studies are needed. Results question the relevance of photoperiod as a factor limiting reproductive development of peanuts in cooler, subtropical environments.

Temperature-dependent feedback inhibition of photosynthesis in peanut

Arachis hypogaea L. is a tropical crop that is slow-growing at temperatures below 25°C. Unadapted CO2-assimilation rate (A) showed insufficient variation between 15 and 30°C in the short term (hours) to explain this marked reduction in growth. However, at longer periods (12 d), A was depressed as were growth rate and leafproduction rate. To examine the possible relationship between growth, A and sink demand plants were transferred from 30°C, which is near the optimum for growth, to a suboptimal temperature (19°C). In the first 2 d of cooling, A decreased by 50-70%, the stomata stayed open, and the intercellular CO2 concentration (ci) rose, i.e. the decrease in A of the cooled plants was the result of non-stomatal factors. Changes in dark respiration did not account for the decline in A.Clear evidence was obtained of sink control of A by independently manipulating the temperature of different leaves on the plant. Cooling (to 19°C) most of the plant (the sink) led to a 70% decline in A of the remaining leaves at 30°C after 3 d, whereas the converse treatments (30°C sink, 19°C source) resulted in small changes (17%). In plants at 19°C which were exposed to low CO2 concentration to prevent photosynthesis, A was not reduced when measured at normal CO2 concentrations, indicating that carbohydrate accumulation was responsible for the decline in A. Dry-matter build-up at suboptimal temperature was also consistent with end-product inhibition of photosynthesis.