Architecture of the ESCPE-1 membrane coat

Recycling of membrane proteins enables the reuse of receptors, ion channels and transporters. A key component of the recycling machinery is the endosomal sorting complex for promoting exit 1 (ESCPE-1), which rescues transmembrane proteins from the endolysosomal pathway for transport to the trans-Golgi network and the plasma membrane. This rescue entails the formation of recycling tubules through ESCPE-1 recruitment, cargo capture, coat assembly and membrane sculpting by mechanisms that remain largely unknown. Herein, we show that ESCPE-1 has a single-layer coat organization and suggest how synergistic interactions between ESCPE-1 protomers, phosphoinositides and cargo molecules result in a global arrangement of amphipathic helices to drive tubule formation. Our results thus define a key process of tubule-based endosomal sorting.

A switch from α-helical to β-strand conformation during co-translational protein folding

Cellular proteins begin to fold as they emerge from the ribosome. The folding landscape of nascent chains is not only shaped by their amino acid sequence but also by the interactions with the ribosome. Here, we combine biophysical methods with cryo‐EM structure determination to show that folding of a β‐barrel protein begins with formation of a dynamic α‐helix inside the ribosome. As the growing peptide reaches the end of the tunnel, the N‐terminal part of the nascent chain refolds to a β‐hairpin structure that remains dynamic until its release from the ribosome. Contacts with the ribosome and structure of the peptidyl transferase center depend on nascent chain conformation. These results indicate that proteins may start out as α‐helices inside the tunnel and switch into their native folds only as they emerge from the ribosome. Moreover, the correlation of nascent chain conformations with reorientation of key residues of the ribosomal peptidyl‐transferase center suggest that protein folding could modulate ribosome activity.

A conserved rRNA switch is central to decoding site maturation on the small ribosomal subunit

While a structural description of the molecular mechanisms guiding ribosome assembly in eukaryotic systems is emerging, bacteria use an unrelated core set of assembly factors for which high-resolution structural information is still missing. To address this, we used single-particle cryo-electron microscopy to visualize the effects of bacterial ribosome assembly factors RimP, RbfA, RsmA, and RsgA on the conformational landscape of the 30S ribosomal subunit and obtained eight snapshots representing late steps in the folding of the decoding center. Analysis of these structures identifies a conserved secondary structure switch in the 16S ribosomal RNA central to decoding site maturation and suggests both a sequential order of action and molecular mechanisms for the assembly factors in coordinating and controlling this switch. Structural and mechanistic parallels between bacterial and eukaryotic systems indicate common folding features inherent to all ribosomes.

The structure of the antimicrobial human cathelicidin LL-37 shows oligomerization and channel formation in the presence of membrane mimics

The human cathelicidin LL-37 serves a critical role in the innate immune system defending bacterial infections. LL-37 can interact with molecules of the cell wall and perforate cytoplasmic membranes resulting in bacterial cell death. To test the interactions of LL-37 and bacterial cell wall components we crystallized LL-37 in the presence of detergents and obtained the structure of a narrow tetrameric channel with a strongly charged core. The formation of a tetramer was further studied by cross-linking in the presence of detergents and lipids. Using planar lipid membranes a small but defined conductivity of this channel could be demonstrated. Molecular dynamic simulations underline the stability of this channel in membranes and demonstrate pathways for the passage of water molecules. Time lapse studies of E. coli cells treated with LL-37 show membrane discontinuities in the outer membrane followed by cell wall damage and cell death. Collectively, our results open a venue to the understanding of a novel AMP killing mechanism and allows the rational design of LL-37 derivatives with enhanced bactericidal activity.

The allosteric control mechanism of bacterial glycogen biosynthesis disclosed by cryoEM

Glycogen and starch are the major carbon and energy reserve polysaccharides in nature, providing living organisms with a survival advantage. The evolution of the enzymatic machinery responsible for the biosynthesis and degradation of such polysaccharides, led the development of mechanisms to control the assembly and disassembly rate, to store and recover glucose according to cell energy demands. The tetrameric enzyme ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) catalyzes and regulates the initial step in the biosynthesis of both α-polyglucans. AGPase displays cooperativity and allosteric regulation by sensing metabolites from the cell energy flux. The understanding of the allosteric signal transduction mechanisms in AGPase arises as a long-standing challenge. In this work, we disclose the cryoEM structures of the paradigmatic homotetrameric AGPase from Escherichia coli (EcAGPase), in complex with either positive or negative physiological allosteric regulators, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) and AMP respectively, both at 3.0 Å resolution. Strikingly, the structures reveal that FBP binds deeply into the allosteric cleft and overlaps the AMP site. As a consequence, FBP promotes a concerted conformational switch of a regulatory loop, RL2, from a "locked" to a "free" state, modulating ATP binding and activating the enzyme. This notion is strongly supported by our complementary biophysical and bioinformatics evidence, and a careful analysis of vast enzyme kinetics data on single-point mutants of EcAGPase. The cryoEM structures uncover the residue interaction networks (RIN) between the allosteric and the catalytic components of the enzyme, providing unique details on how the signaling information is transmitted across the tetramer, from which cooperativity emerges. Altogether, the conformational states visualized by cryoEM reveal the regulatory mechanism of EcAGPase, laying the foundations to understand the allosteric control of bacterial glycogen biosynthesis at the molecular level of detail.

Protein-directed crystalline 2D fullerene assemblies

Water soluble 2D crystalline monolayers of fullerenes grow on planar assemblies of engineered consensus tetratricopeptide repeat proteins. Designed fullerene-coordinating tyrosine clamps on the protein introduce specific fullerene binding sites, which facilitate fullerene nucleation. Through reciprocal interactions between the components, the hybrid material assembles into two-dimensional 2 nm thick structures with crystalline order, that conduct photo-generated charges. Thus, the protein-fullerene hybrid material is a demonstration of the developments toward functional materials with protein-based precision control of functional elements.

Regulation of macrophage activity by surface receptors contained within Borrelia burgdorferi-enriched phagosomal fractions

Macrophages mediate the elimination of pathogens by phagocytosis resulting in the activation of specific signaling pathways that lead to the production of cytokines, chemokines and other factors. Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, causes a wide variety of pro-inflammatory symptoms. The proinflammatory capacity of macrophages is intimately related to the internalization of the spirochete. However, most receptors mediating this process are largely unknown. We have applied a multiomic approach, including the proteomic analysis of B. burgdorferi-containing phagosome-enriched fractions, to identify surface receptors that are involved in the phagocytic capacity of macrophages as well as their inflammatory output. Sucrose gradient protein fractions of human monocyte-derived macrophages exposed to B. burgdorferi contained the phagocytic receptor, CR3/CD14 highlighting the major role played by these proteins in spirochetal phagocytosis. Other proteins identified in these fractions include C-type lectins, scavenger receptors or Siglecs, of which some are directly involved in the interaction with the spirochete. We also identified the Fc gamma receptor pathway, including the binding receptor, CD64, as involved both in the phagocytosis of, and TNF induction in response to B. burgdorferi in the absence of antibodies. The common gamma chain, FcγR, mediates the phagocytosis of the spirochete, likely through Fc receptors and C-type lectins, in a process that involves Syk activation. Overall, these findings highlight the complex array of receptors involved in the phagocytic response of macrophages to B. burgdorferi.

Macrophages eliminate infecting microorganisms through the concerted action of surface receptors and signaling molecules. As a consequence, these cells produce a series of soluble factors that participate in the inflammatory response during infections. The composition of the full complement of receptors that participate in the recognition and internalization of the causative agent of Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi, is largely unknown. We have analyzed the protein composition of phagosomes containing B. burgdorferi from human macrophages and identified a series of surface proteins that may be involved in the process. Through the use of gene silencing techniques, we have determined the participation of several of these receptors both in the internalization of the bacterium and the subsequent inflammatory response. Among these, we have identified the Fc gamma receptor pathway as involved in this process in the absence of antibodies. We have also identified receptors that are directly involved in the attachment of B. burgdorferi, while others seem to have an accessory role in the internalization and/or induction of proinflammatory cytokines in response to the spirochete. These data clarify the complex array of interactions between macrophages and B. burgdorferi and shed light on the overall response to this infectious agent.

Structural basis for assembly of vertical single β-barrel viruses

The vertical double β-barrel major capsid protein (MCP) fold, fingerprint of the PRD1-adeno viral lineage, is widespread in many viruses infecting organisms across the three domains of life. The discovery of PRD1-like viruses with two MCPs challenged the known assembly principles. Here, we present the cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of the archaeal, halophilic, internal membrane-containing Haloarcula californiae icosahedral virus 1 (HCIV-1) and Haloarcula hispanica icosahedral virus 2 (HHIV-2) at 3.7 and 3.8 Å resolution, respectively. Our structures reveal proteins located beneath the morphologically distinct two- and three-tower capsomers and homopentameric membrane proteins at the vertices that orchestrate the positioning of pre-formed vertical single β-barrel MCP heterodimers. The cryo-EM based structures together with the proteomics data provide insights into the assembly mechanism of this type of viruses and into those with membrane-less double β-barrel MCPs.

Here, the authors present the cryo-EM structures of two archaeal, halophilic, internal membrane-containing icosahedral viruses at 3.7 and 3.8 Å resolution, providing insights into the assembly process of these and related PRD1-adeno lineage viruses.

Differences in the metabolite composition and mechanical properties of extracellular vesicles secreted by hepatic cellular models

Liver constitutes the major metabolic factory in the organism and is involved in the synthesis, secretion and clearance of many blood-circulating molecules. Previously, we have characterised the protein and RNA cargo of extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by two hepatic cellular models, a mouse hepatocyte progenitor cell line (MLP29) and primary rat hepatocytes (RHs). Here, we report the metabolome profile of these vesicles by performing a targeted UHPLC-MS metabolomics analysis of these two cellular models and their respective secreted EVs. Visual inspection of the data through principal component analysis allows clear separation of the metabolic profile of cells and EVs, and also of both cellular models. Correlation matrix supported that lipid composition of EVs is mainly determined by parent cell composition. EVs derived from MLP29 and RHs showed a negative correlation in their percentage composition of ceramides, glycerophospholipids, sphingomyelins and triglycerides. Metabolites enriched in EVs were also different depending on the cellular model. EVs secreted by MLP29 were enriched in different species of sphingomyelins and ceramides underrepresented in EVs secreted by RHs. Remarkably, triglycerides constitute an important percentage of the composition of EVs derived from RHs. We further investigate if the differences in lipid composition were also accompanied by differences in mechanical behaviour, by using atomic force microscopy complemented with nanoindentation-based methodology. To compare the stiffness and brittleness of EVs derived from MLP29 cell line and RH primary cells, FZ curves were performed in the centre of single vesicles and the differences found in their force-vs.-indentation curves suggest that RHs EVs are softer (less stiff) and less resistance to mechanical failure than MLP29 EVs. Therefore, we can conclude that EVs from different origin carry a characteristic lipid composition related to their parental cell composition, and exhibit different mechanical properties.

Abbreviations: For the identification of the different species of lipids, the following abbreviations has been employed: Cer, ceramide; ChoE, Cholesteryl Ester; CMH, monohexosylceramide; DAG, diglycerid; LPC, lysophosphatidylcholin; LPI, lysophosphatidyinositol; PC, phosphocoline; PE, phoethanolamine; PI, phosphoinositol; SM, sphingomyelin; TAG, triglycerid

Structural basis of RNA polymerase I stalling at UV light-induced DNA damage

RNA polymerase I (Pol I) transcribes ribosomal DNA (rDNA) to produce the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) precursor, which accounts for up to 60% of the total transcriptional activity in growing cells. Pol I monitors rDNA integrity and influences cell survival, but little is known about how this enzyme processes UV-induced lesions. We report the electron cryomicroscopy structure of Pol I in an elongation complex containing a cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) at a resolution of 3.6 Å. The structure shows that the lesion induces an early translocation intermediate exhibiting unique features. The bridge helix residue Arg1015 plays a major role in CPD-induced Pol I stalling, as confirmed by mutational analysis. These results, together with biochemical data presented here, reveal the molecular mechanism of Pol I stalling by CPD lesions, which is distinct from Pol II arrest by CPD lesions. Our findings open the avenue to unravel the molecular mechanisms underlying cell endurance to lesions on rDNA.

Molecular nucleation mechanisms and control strategies for crystal polymorph selection

The formation of condensed (compacted) protein phases is associated with a wide range of human disorders, such as eye cataracts, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, sickle cell anaemia and Alzheimer's disease. However, condensed protein phases have their uses: as crystals, they are harnessed by structural biologists to elucidate protein structures, or are used as delivery vehicles for pharmaceutical applications. The physiochemical properties of crystals can vary substantially between different forms or structures ('polymorphs') of the same macromolecule, and dictate their usability in a scientific or industrial context. To gain control over an emerging polymorph, one needs a molecular-level understanding of the pathways that lead to the various macroscopic states and of the mechanisms that govern pathway selection. However, it is still not clear how the embryonic seeds of a macromolecular phase are formed, or how these nuclei affect polymorph selection. Here we use time-resolved cryo-transmission electron microscopy to image the nucleation of crystals of the protein glucose isomerase, and to uncover at molecular resolution the nucleation pathways that lead to two crystalline states and one gelled state. We show that polymorph selection takes place at the earliest stages of structure formation and is based on specific building blocks for each space group. Moreover, we demonstrate control over the system by selectively forming desired polymorphs through site-directed mutagenesis, specifically tuning intermolecular bonding or gel seeding. Our results differ from the present picture of protein nucleation, in that we do not identify a metastable dense liquid as the precursor to the crystalline state. Rather, we observe nucleation events that are driven by oriented attachments between subcritical clusters that already exhibit a degree of crystallinity. These insights suggest ways of controlling macromolecular phase transitions, aiding the development of protein-based drug-delivery systems and macromolecular crystallography.

RsgA couples the maturation state of the 30S ribosomal decoding center to activation of its GTPase pocket

During 30S ribosomal subunit biogenesis, assembly factors are believed to prevent accumulation of misfolded intermediate states of low free energy that slowly convert into mature 30S subunits, namely, kinetically trapped particles. Among the assembly factors, the circularly permuted GTPase, RsgA, plays a crucial role in the maturation of the 30S decoding center. Here, directed hydroxyl radical probing and single particle cryo-EM are employed to elucidate RsgA΄s mechanism of action. Our results show that RsgA destabilizes the 30S structure, including late binding r-proteins, providing a structural basis for avoiding kinetically trapped assembly intermediates. Moreover, RsgA exploits its distinct GTPase pocket and specific interactions with the 30S to coordinate GTPase activation with the maturation state of the 30S subunit. This coordination validates the architecture of the decoding center and facilitates the timely release of RsgA to control the progression of 30S biogenesis.

Structure of a 30S pre-initiation complex stalled by GE81112 reveals structural parallels in bacterial and eukaryotic protein synthesis initiation pathways

In bacteria, the start site and the reading frame of the messenger RNA are selected by the small ribosomal subunit (30S) when the start codon, typically an AUG, is decoded in the P-site by the initiator tRNA in a process guided and controlled by three initiation factors. This process can be efficiently inhibited by GE81112, a natural tetrapeptide antibiotic that is highly specific toward bacteria. Here GE81112 was used to stabilize the 30S pre-initiation complex and obtain its structure by cryo-electron microscopy. The results obtained reveal the occurrence of changes in both the ribosome conformation and initiator tRNA position that may play a critical role in controlling translational fidelity. Furthermore, the structure highlights similarities with the early steps of initiation in eukaryotes suggesting that shared structural features guide initiation in all kingdoms of life.

The Structure of the R2TP Complex Defines a Platform for Recruiting Diverse Client Proteins to the HSP90 Molecular Chaperone System

The R2TP complex, comprising the Rvb1p-Rvb2p AAA-ATPases, Tah1p, and Pih1p in yeast, is a specialized Hsp90 co-chaperone required for the assembly and maturation of multi-subunit complexes. These include the small nucleolar ribonucleoproteins, RNA polymerase II, and complexes containing phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase-like kinases. The structure and stoichiometry of yeast R2TP and how it couples to Hsp90 are currently unknown. Here, we determine the 3D organization of yeast R2TP using sedimentation velocity analysis and cryo-electron microscopy. The 359-kDa complex comprises one Rvb1p/Rvb2p hetero-hexamer with domains II (DIIs) forming an open basket that accommodates a single copy of Tah1p-Pih1p. Tah1p-Pih1p binding to multiple DII domains regulates Rvb1p/Rvb2p ATPase activity. Using domain dissection and cross-linking mass spectrometry, we identified a unique region of Pih1p that is essential for interaction with Rvb1p/Rvb2p. These data provide a structural basis for understanding how R2TP couples an Hsp90 dimer to a diverse set of client proteins and complexes.

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Rvb1p-Rvb2p forms a hetero-hexamer with DII domains recruiting a single Tah1p-Pih1p

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Residues 230–250 in Pih1p are essential to bind Rvb1p-Rvb2p

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3D structure of yeast R2TP couples an Hsp90 dimer to client proteins

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Tah1p-Pih1p binding to flexible DII domains stimulates Rvb1p-Rvb2p ATPase activity

Ribosome rearrangements at the onset of translational bypassing

Bypassing is a recoding event that leads to the translation of two distal open reading frames into a single polypeptide chain. We present the structure of a translating ribosome stalled at the bypassing take-off site of gene 60 of bacteriophage T4. The nascent peptide in the exit tunnel anchors the P-site peptidyl-tRNA^Gly to the ribosome and locks an inactive conformation of the peptidyl transferase center (PTC). The mRNA forms a short dynamic hairpin in the decoding site. The ribosomal subunits adopt a rolling conformation in which the rotation of the small subunit around its long axis causes the opening of the A-site region. Together, PTC conformation and mRNA structure safeguard against premature termination and read-through of the stop codon and reconfigure the ribosome to a state poised for take-off and sliding along the noncoding mRNA gap.

Electron Microscopy Structural Insights into CPAP Oligomeric Behavior: A Plausible Assembly Process of a Supramolecular Scaffold of the Centrosome

Centrosomal P4.1-associated protein (CPAP) is a cell cycle regulated protein fundamental for centrosome assembly and centriole elongation. In humans, the region between residues 897–1338 of CPAP mediates interactions with other proteins and includes a homodimerization domain. CPAP mutations cause primary autosomal recessive microcephaly and Seckel syndrome. Despite of the biological/clinical relevance of CPAP, its mechanistic behavior remains unclear and its C-terminus (the G-box/TCP domain) is the only part whose structure has been solved. This situation is perhaps due in part to the challenges that represent obtaining the protein in a soluble, homogeneous state for structural studies. Our work constitutes a systematic structural analysis on multiple oligomers of HsCPAP^897−1338, using single-particle electron microscopy (EM) of negatively stained (NS) samples. Based on image classification into clearly different regular 3D maps (putatively corresponding to dimers and tetramers) and direct observation of individual images representing other complexes of HsCPAP^897−1338 (i.e., putative flexible monomers and higher-order multimers), we report a dynamic oligomeric behavior of this protein, where different homo-oligomers coexist in variable proportions. We propose that dimerization of the putative homodimer forms a putative tetramer which could be the structural unit for the scaffold that either tethers the pericentriolar material to centrioles or promotes procentriole elongation. A coarse fitting of atomic models into the NS 3D maps at resolutions around 20 Å is performed only to complement our experimental data, allowing us to hypothesize on the oligomeric composition of the different complexes. In this way, the current EM work represents an initial step toward the structural characterization of different oligomers of CPAP, suggesting further insights to understand how this protein works, contributing to the elucidation of control mechanisms for centriole biogenesis.

The dynamic assembly of distinct RNA polymerase I complexes modulates rDNA transcription

Cell growth requires synthesis of ribosomal RNA by RNA polymerase I (Pol I). Binding of initiation factor Rrn3 activates Pol I, fostering recruitment to ribosomal DNA promoters. This fundamental process must be precisely regulated to satisfy cell needs at any time. We present in vivo evidence that, when growth is arrested by nutrient deprivation, cells induce rapid clearance of Pol I–Rrn3 complexes, followed by the assembly of inactive Pol I homodimers. This dual repressive mechanism reverts upon nutrient addition, thus restoring cell growth. Moreover, Pol I dimers also form after inhibition of either ribosome biogenesis or protein synthesis. Our mutational analysis, based on the electron cryomicroscopy structures of monomeric Pol I alone and in complex with Rrn3, underscores the central role of subunits A43 and A14 in the regulation of differential Pol I complexes assembly and subsequent promoter association.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20832.001

Studying nanoparticles’ 3D shape by aspect maps: Determination of the morphology of bacterial magnetic nanoparticles

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are widely investigated due to their potential use in various applications, ranging from electronics to biomedical devices. The magnetic properties of MNPs are strongly dependent on their size and shape (i.e., morphology), thus appropriate tools to investigate their morphology are fundamental to understand the physics of these systems. Recently a new approach to study nanoparticle morphology by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) analysis has been proposed, introducing the so-called Aspect Maps (AMs). In this paper, a further evolution of the AM method is presented, allowing determination of the nanoparticles’ 3D shape by TEM image. As a case study, this paper will focus on magnetite nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄), with a mean size of ∼45 nm extracted from Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense magnetostatic bacteria (MTB). The proposed approach gives a complete description of the nanoparticles’ morphology, allowing estimation of an average geometrical size and shape. In addition, preliminary investigation of the magnetic properties of MTB nanoparticles was performed, giving some insight into interparticle interactions and on the reversal mechanism of the magnetization.

Insight into the Assembly of Viruses with Vertical Single β-barrel Major Capsid Proteins

Archaeal viruses constitute the least explored niche within the virosphere. Structure-based approaches have revealed close relationships between viruses infecting organisms from different domains of life. Here, using biochemical and cryo-electron microscopy techniques, we solved the structure of euryarchaeal, halophilic, internal membrane-containing Haloarcula hispanica icosahedral virus 2 (HHIV-2). We show that the density of the two major capsid proteins (MCPs) recapitulates vertical single β-barrel proteins and that disulfide bridges stabilize the capsid. Below, ordered density is visible close to the membrane and at the five-fold vertices underneath the host-interacting vertex complex underpinning membrane-protein interactions. The HHIV-2 structure exemplifies the division of conserved architectural elements of a virion, such as the capsid, from those that evolve rapidly due to selective environmental pressure such as host-recognizing structures. We propose that in viruses with two vertical single β-barrel MCPs the vesicle is indispensable, and membrane-protein interactions serve as protein-railings for guiding the assembly.

Mechanism of membranous tunnelling nanotube formation in viral genome delivery

In internal membrane-containing viruses, a lipid vesicle enclosed by the icosahedral capsid protects the genome. It has been postulated that this internal membrane is the genome delivery device of the virus. Viruses built with this architectural principle infect hosts in all three domains of cellular life. Here, using a combination of electron microscopy techniques, we investigate bacteriophage PRD1, the best understood model for such viruses, to unveil the mechanism behind the genome translocation across the cell envelope. To deliver its double-stranded DNA, the icosahedral protein-rich virus membrane transforms into a tubular structure protruding from one of the 12 vertices of the capsid. We suggest that this viral nanotube exits from the same vertex used for DNA packaging, which is biochemically distinct from the other 11. The tube crosses the capsid through an aperture corresponding to the loss of the peripentonal P3 major capsid protein trimers, penton protein P31 and membrane protein P16. The remodeling of the internal viral membrane is nucleated by changes in osmolarity and loss of capsid-membrane interactions as consequence of the de-capping of the vertices. This engages the polymerization of the tail tube, which is structured by membrane-associated proteins. We have observed that the proteo-lipidic tube in vivo can pierce the gram-negative bacterial cell envelope allowing the viral genome to be shuttled to the host cell. The internal diameter of the tube allows one double-stranded DNA chain to be translocated. We conclude that the assembly principles of the viral tunneling nanotube take advantage of proteo-lipid interactions that confer to the tail tube elastic, mechanical and functional properties employed also in other protein-membrane systems.