Predictors of short- and long-term sickness absence in female post office workers in Poland

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to highlight major predictors of the frequency of sickness absence in a group of workers directly involved in customer service.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study was carried out on a random sample of 229 women employed as assistants and clerks in post offices. The survey was based on the Subjective Work, Health Status and Life Style Characteristics Questionnaire, and sickness absence data for the years 2004-2006.

RESULTS

The negative binominal regression model of sickness absence risk revealed the following significant predictors of short-term absence spells (1-29 days): 1) marital status, sickness absence risk for single women was (rate ratio (RR)) = 1.56 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.01-2.39) vs. married women; 2) post offices employing 7 workers had a rate ratio of sickness absence of 1.6 (95% CI: 1.04-2.42); 13-25 workers - RR = 2.03 (95% CI: 1.41-2.93); > 25 workers - RR = 1.82 (95% CI: 1.15-2.88) compared with an average number of 8-12 workers; 3) shift work, RR = 1.57 (95% CI: 1.14-2.14); 4) breaks from work - the risk of absence in the case of any breaks amounted to RR = 1.5 (95% CI: 1.07-2.07) in comparison with the statutory breaks; 5) self-rated health reported as moderate relative to good health, RR = 1.71 (95% CI: 1.26-2.32); and 6) occurrence of respiratory diseases resulted in the risk of RR = 1.51 (95% CI: 1.08-2.08). The Poisson regression model of long-term sickness absence spells (≥ 30 days) revealed the following significant predictors: 1) number of clients per shift: 51-100 clients, RR = 3.62 (95% CI: 1.07-22.6) compared with a lower number of clients; 2) self-rated health, assessed as moderate, RR = 1.97 (95% CI: 1.06-3.78) and 3) household chores performed for at least 4 h a day, RR = 0.4 (95% CI: 0.18-0.79).

CONCLUSIONS

Association between sickness absence and workload as well as work organization indicates directions of corrective actions, which could reduce the scale of the problem.

[Presenteeism--(not) new phenomenon in the occupational environment]

Presenteeism, understood as being at work while ill, is not a new phenomenon. However, not long ago it has become an object of researchers' interest. Formerly, they focused mainly on absenteeism. In general, presenteesim is perceived as negative and very costly for employers. The majority of scientific studies refer to the problem of employees' productivity reduced due to their at tending work despite being ill, but the knowledge about presenteeism's causes and effects (other than decreased productivity) for both, the employee and the organisation, is still very limited. Especially in Poland there are very few scientific reports on this issue. However, the paper on presenteeism published recently (the 3/2013 issue of this Journal) defined this phenomenon as a non effective presence at work. The authors postulate to avoid pejorative connotation of this term by equating presenteeism with loss of productivity, and to separate this phenomenon from its possible negative and positive consequences. Thus, this paper aims at presenting current state of the art on this phenomenon, including such issues as definitional problems, measures and frequency of presenteeism, as well as its causes and consequences. In this paper presenteeism is presented in a wider perspective of its individual and contextual determinants.

[Person-organization fit as a mediator of relationship between work environment and stress among social workers]

BACKGROUND

Occupational stress of social workers is associated with various psychosocial hazards in the work environment. Some of them affect person-organization fit (P-O fit). The aim of the study was to verify a hypothesis on the mediating role of P-O fit in the relationship between work environment and stress.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The research was based on a sample of 500 social workers directly involved in social work. The data were obtained using the Person-Organization Fit Questionnaire by Czarnota-Bojarska, the Work Environment Questionnaire developed by the Department of Occupational Psychology, Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, Łódź, and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) by Cohen et al.

RESULTS

As revealed by the regression analysis of the 4 analyzed work environment factors, only organizational politics was significantly related with perceived stress. Complementary and supplementary dimensions of P-O fit and identification with organization were the mediators of the relationship between organizational policies and stress, but only complementary fit proved to be a total mediator.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the study suggest that person-organization fit, especially its complementary aspect, is an essential determinant of accomplishing the core functions of social work and good practice among social workers.

Job stress, occupational position and gender as factors differentiating workplace bullying experience

BACKGROUND

The results of our research broaden the knowledge concerning the correlates of mobbing. The study is aimed at finding out whether an employee's gender, his/her occupational position and level of occupational stress are related to bullying experience.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

1313 employees of a transport company participated in the study. The relationships between gender, occupational position, the level of stress and bullying were analysed. Bullying was measured by the use of the MD)M Questionnaire, while work environment was assessed using the Subjective Assessment of Work Questionnaire.

RESULTS

It was found that women were generally more exposed to bullying than men (Z = -1.999; p < 0.05). Women experienced more bullying by their colleagues than men did (Z = -2.712; p < 0.01), in particular: bullying by colleagues that destroys the worker's image (Z = -2.922; p < 0.01) and bullying by colleagues that destroys social relations (Z = -3.004; p < 0.01). Individuals with managerial jobs experienced overall bullying (Z = -2.762; p < 0.01), bullying by colleagues (Z = -0.014; p < 0.05) and bullying by colleagues that destroys social relations (Z = -2.260; p < 0.05) more often than the individuals with non-management positions. The results of the study also indicated that employees with higher level of stress in comparison with less stressed co-workers reported more incidents of bullying behaviour (overall bullying--Z = -8.171; p < 0.001, bullying by colleagues - Z = -7.114; p < 0.001, bullying by supervisors--Z = -6.716; p < 0.001, all types of behaviour - p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Comparing the results of our study to the previous research, it seems that the pattern of relationships between individual characteristics and bullying is rooted in the wider cultural context, the specificity of the company, its organisational culture as well as its situation. Therefore it's difficult to talk about irrefutable individual correlates of bullying at work.

Psychologiczne konsekwencje przewlekłych chorób układu oddechowego. Rola personelu medycznego w ich przezwyciężaniu

Współczesna medycyna pozwala poprawiać wydolność niesprawnych organów i w znacznym stopniu uśmierzać ból fizyczny, niestety w procesie leczenia pacjentów wciąż zbyt mało miejsca poświęca się psychicznemu wymiarowi cierpienia. Tymczasem w populacji chorujących na przewlekłe choroby układu oddechowego znaczny odsetek osób doświadcza zaburzeń zdrowia psychicznego w postaci depresji i zaburzeń lękowych. Artykuł dotyczy czynników ryzyka wystąpienia problemów ze zdrowiem psychicznym, które są następstwem choroby somatycznej. Zwrócono uwagę na znaczenie poszerzania wśród lekarzy wiedzy na temat psychicznych konsekwencji przewlekłych chorób układu oddechowego, aby mogli dostrzegać symptomy pogarszania się stanu zdrowia psychicznego u pacjentów i w porę im przeciwdziałać. Wskazano także na konieczność współdziałania lekarzy ze specjalistami zajmującymi się zdrowiem psychicznym. Współpraca taka jest w wielu przypadkach warunkiem skuteczności leczenia i wpływa na poprawę jakości życia pacjentów.

[Visual abilities of older drivers--review of driving simulator studies]

In the member countries of the year Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), one in four people will reach the age of 65 or more by 2030 and their population aged over 80 will triple by 2050. Changes that occur in the demographic structure of developed countries will affect traffic area. Most of the on-road existing solutions is inadequate for older people with diminished cognitive and motor abilities. In this group, difficulties in driving performance are associated with reduced cognitive efficiency, vision and hearing loss, and general psychomotor slowing. The presented review focuses on the studies of a useful field of view, an indicator considered to be a valid predictor of road accidents, divided attention, susceptibility to distraction and visual search strategies. The major questions of these studies were: which vision parameters determine safe driving, what degree of their deterioration causes significant risk and whether there are opportunities for their rehabilitation. The results indicate that older drivers do exhibit vision and attention deficits, but their engagement in a wide range of compensatory behaviors and effective visual search strategies compensate for these deficits. This shows that older drivers cannot be clearly classified as a group of particular risk for causing road traffic accidents. We should not be alarmed by a growing group of active senior drivers. We should rather use the advantages of available methods, including driving simulators, to predict how the traffic environment will look like in the close future and how to make it friendly and safe for everyone.

[Psychological consequences of chronic lungs diseases. The role of medical staff in treatment of psychological problems]

Contemporary medicine allows to improve efficiency of sick organs and relief the pain to a large extent, but there is still too little awareness of psychological aspect of suffering among physicians. Although, considerable percentage of people with chronic lungs diseases experience mental disorders such as depression and anxiety, there is no common practice of including psychological care into the treatment protocol. Article highlights the importance of development of knowledge about psychological consequences of chronic lungs diseases among physicians as an early diagnosis of mental health disturbances is crucial for general health status and functioning in this group of patients. Necessity of cooperation with mental health specialists was also shown. It is important to create interdisciplinary teams for improvement of treatment outcomes and and patients' quality of life.

[Polish adaptation of swing questionnaire (Survey Work-home Interaction - Nijmegen)]

The aim of the paper is to present the Polish adaptation of Survey Work-Home Interaction - Nijmegen (SWING).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The analyses were based on the survey results from two groups of subjects, a sample of workers, representative in terms of sex and age, living in urban areas (N = 600) and a group of 59 employees examined twice with a help of SWING to assess the stability of the obtained results over a month time.

RESULTS

The analyses performed proved that the Polish version of SWING is a reliable tool for studying work-home interactions. Correlation coefficients of items with total result of negative work-home interaction (WHI) subscale varied from 0.51 to 0.74, with positive WHI subscale from 0.26 to 0.60, negative home-work interaction (HWI) subscale, from 0.54 to 0.68 and positive HWI subscale from 0.31 to 0.59. Cronbach's alpha for the whole survey was 0.79, and for subscales varied from 0.73 to 0.89. The results of factorial analysis confirmed a our-factor structure of SWING. Factors I, items had loading from 0.58 to 0.81; II, from 0.29 to 0.78; III, from 0.60 to 0.80; and IV, from 0.28 to 0.74. The values of fit index for a four-factor model, were 0.91 (NNFI), 0.06 (RMSEA), and 0.92 (CFI), which means that this model is characterized by a good fit to empirical data. The correlation coefficient between two measurements at one month interval were also high and reached the range of 0.63 to 0.84.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained are comparable to the psychometric characteristic of the English version of SWING.

[Assessment workaholism as a behavioral tendency: the Polish adaptation of the Mudrack and Naughton questionnaire]

INTRODUCTION

There are many approaches to workaholism presented in the scientific literature. The behavioral developed by Mudrack and Naughton is one of them. The authors understand workaholism as a tendency towards unnecessary activity that is not expected by an employer and intrusive strive for control over co-workers. Mudrack and Naughton developed the diagnostic tool for workaholism measurement. This is an 8-item questionnaire consisted of two subscales named: non-required work and control of others. The operationalisation of the workaholism phenomenon proposed by the authors seems to be the subject of interest to both scientists and practitioners. It allows for quick and easy diagnosis of the problem and also offers tools for behavioral change of unhealthy activities. That is why, the Polish adaptation of this questionnaire has been decided.

METHODS

The following analyses were applied: item analysis, explanatory and confirmatory factor analyses and the reliability of scales were calculated.

RESULTS

This paper presents stages of the adaptation study which has resulted in the construction of a 12-item questionnaire.

CONCLUSION

The Polish version of Mudrack and Naughton's tool, like the original, has a two-factor structure, and preliminary psychometric properties seem to be satisfactory (Cronbach alfa = 0.87).

[Person-organization fit and work ability]

BACKGROUND

Person-environment issue has long been in focus of researchers who explore the area of human labor. It is known that the level of fit is a predictor of many phenomena related to health and attitude to work. The aim of this study was to explore the association between the level of person- organization fit (P-O fit) and work ability, including indicators of somatic and mental health.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research was conducted on a representative sample of 600 Polish men and women at working age. The Person-Organization Fit Questionnaire was used to assess three dimensions of P-O fit (supplementary fit, complementary fit and identification with organization); mental health status was measured by GHQ-28; the number of diagnosed diseases was taken as an index of somatic health; work ability, ability to physical and mental efforts were measured by three items from the Work Ability Index.

RESULTS

A significant relationship between P-O fit level and work ability was found. In men, work ability predictors were: age, supplementary fit and mental health status, which explained 25% of the variance in work ability. In women, work ability predictors were: the number of diagnosed somatic diseases, supplementary fit, age and complementary fit, which explained 27% of the variance in work ability. Some gender-related differences in the predictive value of variables under the study were also found.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study indicate the importance of P-O fit in shaping the sense of work ability, a recognized predictor of workers' occupational activity and the frequency of taking sick leave in subsequent years. Therefore, this result may be a useful argument to motivate employers to employ workers adequately to their abilities and preferences.

[Stress prevention programs--strategies, techniques, effectiveness. Part II. Organizational activities to prevent stress at work]

This is the second part of the publication on approaches to occupational stress prevention and a state of the art in different European countries. In this part, stress prevention within an organization is described and discussed. Although there is no one way of tackling stress at work, some recommendations can be formulated to increase the effectiveness of such interventions. The effective stress reducing programs should be aimed both at changes in the organization itself and empowerment of employees' coping with stress resources. It is also important to take the advantage of wide spectrum of methods and techniques (e.g., work redesign, participation, team work, cognitive behavioral methods, relaxation, etc.) remembering that one size does not fit all. The intervention should be carefully planned and adopted to the various branches, an individual organization or department and should be preceded by the identification of stress risks and risk groups. To have the stress prevention program successfully introduced one should also consider factors which may influence (positively or negatively) the process of program implementation.

[Use of driving simulators in psychological research]

The history of simulators dates back to the first decades of the twentieth century. At the beginning they were used to train pilots, and eventually they were used in the automotive industry for testing the strength of new vehicles and ergonomic solutions. With time research institutions and technical universities from outside the automotive industry have become more and more interested in simulators. Attractiveness of simulators for researchers is based on a number of important factors: they create the possibility of modeling, control and repeatability of different experimental situations, reducing at the same time the impact of confounding factors. Simulators have a great potential for data collection and processing. What's more, they are safe and ecologic. These values make them almost an ideal research tool. The article presents a review of psychological studies with use of vehicle driving simulators. It also points to advantages and disadvantages of these devices and outlines the future prospects for experimental research.

[The effect of stress on the semen quality]

BACKGROUND

Stress is one of the most important health and social problems. Psychological stress has long been suspected of having an important impact on infertility. Studies on the effects of psychological stress on male fertility, especially the semen quality, have so far yielded equivocal findings.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study population consisted of 179 men who had reported to the infertility clinic for diagnostic purposes, some of them with normal fertility (semen total concentration of 15-300 mln/ml) or with slight oligozoospermia (semen total concentration of 10-15 mln/ml). The semen samples were analyzed in one laboratory according to the WHO manual on basic semen analysis. The main semen parameters were assessed: volume, motility, percent of atypical and progressive spermatozoa. To assess the occupational stress the Subjective Work Characteristics Questionnaire was used. Assessing the level of stress we concentrated on the sum of points obtained by each man taking part in the study and the number of psychosocial factors present at work reported by the subjects.

RESULTS

Measuring the level of stress by the Subjective Work Characteristics Questionnaire, we revealed negative effects of a number of stressful situations at work, which affect semen volume and percent of progressive spermatozoa, taking account of confounding factors that can have impact on the semen quality and thus affect fertility, such as duration of the couple's infertility, past sexual abstinence and diseases.

CONCLUSION

The study confirm that the occupational stress can affect the male semen quality, however, due to the limited data on this issue, the obtained results must be confirmed by more extensive, longitudinal studies.

Psychological correlates of quality of life in dermatology patients: the role of mental health and self-acceptance

OBJECTIVES

Chronic skin diseases have been recognized as having a detrimental effect on patients' quality of life, also causing considerable mental discomfort. Reduced self-acceptance, low self-esteem, a negative body image, and a low sense of self-worth have been noted in patients with visible skin disorders. Yet in the available literature we could not find any data concerning the relationship between mental health status, self-image, and quality of life. This research, then, analyzes potential relationships between self-acceptance, mental health status, and quality of life in dermatology patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In total, 112 patients of the Occupational Diseases Outpatient Clinic and the Occupational and Environmental Allergy Centre of the Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine (NIOM) were examined. The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) was used to assess the patients' mental health; a Polish version of the Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) was employed to assess life quality; and the Self-Acceptance Scale (SAS) served to obtain the patients' self-image. Results showed that there were statistically significant differences in self-assessment of mental health and quality of life depending on ones's level of self-acceptance. People with high self-acceptance are characterized by better mental health than those with low self-acceptance (t = 4.8; p = 0.00). Patients with a negative selfimage (compared to those with a positive self-image) also deem their quality of life to be poor (t = 3.1; p = 0.00). Results of regression analysis show that mental health status significantly affects the quality of life in dermatology patients; the standardized coefficient was beta = 0.42 (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Relationships have been found to exist between the patient's mental health and both their subjective assessment of life quality and self-image. Taking into account the role of mental health as a potential determinant of quality of life among dermatology patients, and considering the strong correlation between self-acceptance and well-being, treatment should also focus on counseling.

[Stress prevention programs--strategies, techniques, effectiveness. Part I. National and international activities to prevent stress at work]

Work stress is nowadays one of the major world-wide problems because of its negative impact on health and socio-economic consequences. Therefore, many organizations, established to protect occupational health and safety, include stress-related issues into their preventive activities. This article is the first part of a broader review of approaches to work stress prevention and existing practices in Europe. It presents anti-stress interventions elaborated and implemented at international and national levels, such as: legal and research initiatives, educational actions, supporting the development of knowledge of occupational stress, and promoting the idea of healthy work place.

[Exposure to aggression at work in the health care and public service sectors]

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to assess the frequency and forms of violent behavior against nurses and service sector workers.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The subjects under the study were 1163 nurses and 391 service sector workers (public transport and postal services) aged 19-63 years. Subjects were asked to fill in the survey questionnaire "Exposure to Aggression", which consists of 32 items and allows for assessing the frequency of acts of aggression (both physical and psychical) against employees in a one year period.

RESULTS

Clients and patients were the most common source of aggression in the group of employees under study; around 90% of them experienced various forms of verbal abuse. Every second employee was the subject of supervisor's aggression. It was also found that more than 20% of public transport workers and around 14% of nurses were physically abused by their clients or patients. The collected data show that aggressive behaviors at work is a serious and challenging problem that may affect the performance and health of employees.

Violence at the workplace--a questionnaire survey of nurses

BACKGROUND

In the health sector, anywhere in the world nurses are one of the most exposed groups to violence. However, it is not obvious that psychiatric nurses (PNs) are more exposed to aggression and burnout.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the nature and effects of aggressive acts towards nursing staff in psychiatric and other medical services in Poland.

METHODS

Various questionnaires (Stress at Work Scale, General Health Questionnaire, Maslach Burnout Inventory, Work Satisfaction Scale), were distributed among psychiatric (N=78) and non-psychiatric nurses (N-PNs) (N=335). A 92.6% response rate was achieved.

RESULTS

Significant differences were found between PNs and non-psychiatric counterparts with respect to their experiences of violence. The most frequently reported incident was verbal abuse, followed by threats and physical assault. Patients were significantly more frequent perpetrators in psychiatric wards than in others. The level of intra-staff aggression did not significantly vary between groups, neither did the level of work satisfaction and absenteeism.

CONCLUSION

The frequency of violent acts and stress related to them point out the strong need for the development of preventive programs to address the issue of violence at work.

[Psychological effects of road accidents: a challenge for public health]

The authors discuss psychological consequences of road accidents and the need for providing support for the victims and their families. The most common psychological effects include mental health problems, increased use of psychotropic drugs, and difficulty in performing occupational functions. Therefore, it is necessary to remodel the system of traffic safety and supplement it with a comprehensive system of support for both direct victims of accidents and their close relatives. To reach this goal, we need to develop optimal conditions for multidisciplinary research to investigate the effects of road accidents in Poland. This would make it possible to design effective psychological treatment and develop an institutional system for relevant support. However, some preventive measures can be taken right now, e.g., early intervention for severely injured victims during their hospital stay or providing support for non-injured victims and their families.

[Trait anxiety and type behavior pattern (A and B) as modifiers of immediate reaction towards violent behaviors]

BACKGROUND

Experience of violence at the work place leads to serious consequences for both an employee and the organization. That is why prevention programs are necessary to reduce the risk of violence at work as well as possible adverse consequences of violent acts that cannot be predicted and prevented. Some research studies suggest that the range and severity of individual consequences of experiencing violence at work depend on the personality of victims, including their typical reactions to violent acts. In this paper, such personal characteristics as trait-anxiety, type A/B behavior pattern (TABP/TBBP) are discussed as potential modifiers of individual reaction towards the violence experienced at work.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A sample of 1163 nurses, representative of the Mazovian Voivodship was surveyed. The standardized "paper and pencil" questionnaires were employed in the survey. The relationship between direct reaction to violence and trait-anxiety and TABP/TBBP was analyzed.

RESULTS

Tendency to express an aggressive reaction towards violent behavior of others was positively correlated with a high level of trait-anxiety and TABP and submissive reactions to violence with a high level of trait-anxiety and TBBP, whereas tendency to express assertive reaction when being attacked was related to a low level of trait-anxiety and TBBP.

CONCLUSIONS

Statistically significant relationship between trait-anxiety and behavior pattern was observed. A high level of anxiety is correlated with ineffective coping with violent acts as submissive and aggressive reaction. The tendency to express these two kinds of behavior when facing violence is strengthen by behavior pattern. The tendency to aggressive reactions as a response to aggression of others is stronger when a high level of trait-anxiety is accompanied by TABP. The tendency to present submissive reactions as a response to aggression of others is stronger when a high level of anxiety and TBBP characterize the individual who faces a violent act. These individual characteristics are thought to be rather stable and difficult to change, but they should be taken into account in the process of designing the violence prevention programs for the organization. We believe that in our attempts to reduce the extent of the problem we should provide information on the role of individual characteristics in the process of coping with violence and recommend to employ positive effects of the repeated assertiveness training in the violence prevention programs as a useful tool for teaching people how to behave in the face of aggressiveness of others.

[Predictors of mental health status and working ability of blue-collar workers]

BACKGROUND

From the 1980s, the research focused on factors influencing work ability among older workers has been developed. In Poland, these issues were not in the field of interest until 2001, when the Polish government established a new research project on work activity and ageing. One of its main topics was the relationship between psychosocial factors at work and work ability. The aim of the presented study was to find out psychosocial work characteristics that influence the level of work ability and mental health status. The attention was also paid to the role of coping with occupational stress and life style perceived as factors protecting against the decrease in work ability and mental health problems.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The cross-sectional study was performed in the group of 400 blue-collar male workers employed in large industrial plants.

RESULTS

Several predictors of work ability were found. There were: age, stress experienced due to lack of rewards at work, and mental health status. A properly composed diet was the only factor that positively correlated with work ability. Taking into account mental health status, it was found that stress experienced due to organizational uncertainty, expression of negative emotion at work and amount of alcohol drunk negatively correlates with good mental health status.

CONCLUSIONS

A high level of physical activity performed after work and a wide range of different coping strategies in use positively correlate with good mental health.

The validity of general health questionnaires, GHQ-12 and GHQ-28, in mental health studies of working people

The purpose of the study was to determine such cut-off points in the scores of General Health Questionnaires (GHQ-12 and GHQ-28) that allow for optimal identification of people with mental health disorders in the Polish working population attending primary health care settings. The groups under the study covered 419 and 392 patients for GHQ-12, and GHQ-28, respectively. In the GHQ-12 group, 90 and in the GHQ-28 group, 80 subjects filled in the questionnaires and agreed to participate in the second stage of the study--a psychiatric interview. The criterion validity of the GHQs was a mental health diagnosis, based on the Munich version of Composite International Diagnostic Interview. The complete computerized version of interview, covering all diagnostic sections, has been adopted. In the mental health diagnosis only disorders, which currently troubled patients were taken into consideration and disorders which created problems in the distant past were excluded. In the group covered by GHQ-12 examination, 55.6% of persons had at least one type of mental disorder diagnosed, based on the criteria of both Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). In the GHQ-28 group, the percentage of persons with mental disorders was 47.5%. After excluding patients with nicotine dependence disorder only, the frequency of mental health problems decreased to 45.5% and 33.8%, respectively. The proposed cut-off points, 2/3 points for GHQ-12 and 5/6 points for GHQ-28, were established at the level of the highest possible sensitivity and specificity not lower than 75%. These principals have been accepted for a practical reason, as the acceptance of the lower level of specificity forces medical practitioners to devote too much time to practically healthy people. At the above mentioned cut-off points for GHQ-12 sensitivity is 64% and specificity--79%, while for GHQ-28 the values are 59% and 75%, respectively. These validity coefficients were calculated from distributions of groups, from which persons with nicotine dependence as the only disorder were excluded. Incorporation of these people in the whole sample reduced the questionnaires' validity. Modification of responses scoring from the standard one--GHQ to CGHQ has not improved the validity of questionnaires. Lower validity coefficients of GHQ-28, in comparison to GHQ-12 validity are the effect of greater influence of somatic disease on the results acquired in this scale version of the questionnaire.

[Sense of personal control and the level of occupational stress and related effects]

There is opinion that the sense of personal control at workplace is an important factor determining the occupational stress and related effects. The group of 160 policemen were studied to verify empirically the above-mentioned opinion. The subjects assessed their level of sense of personal control, occupational stress, burnout and mental health. Statistical analysis revealed following significant correlation coefficients between the sense of personal control and stress (r = -0.33); job satisfaction (r = -0.44); emotional exhaustion (r = -0.28); depersonalization (r = -0.26); and feeling of personal accomplishment (r = -0.25); total score in GHQ-28 (r = -0.16). The results of the study let us draw a practical conclusion. In order to diminish the level of job stress it is required to introduce proper organizational changes enhancing the sense of personal control among workers.

Theoretical assumptions and psychometric characteristics of the sense of personal control at work questionnaire

Personal control is a very important determinant of stress experienced at work. This variable is taken into account in different models of stress, and its role in the relationship between stress and stress effects has been studied in many research projects. But there is still lack of in-depth theoretical considerations on various definitions of control, which would allow to develop precise operationalization of this phenomenon. The following issues are discussed in this paper: 1) theoretical assumptions important for proper construction of the Sense of Personal Control at Work (SPCW); 2) the origins of SPCW Questionnaire; 3) the results of empirical study on psychometric characteristics of the SPCW Questionnaire. A group of 160 subjects participated in the study; the SPCW Questionnaire was administered twice with a 2-week interval; at the first stage, it was used together with other instruments, such as Maslach Burnout Inventory, Stress at Work Questionnaire, Work Satisfaction Scale, general Health Questionnaire-28. Reliability coefficients: Cronbach alpha = 0.81; r(tt) = 0.69.

VALIDITY

correlation coefficients between personal control and work satisfaction r = 0.44; stress at work r = -0.33; emotional exhaustion r = -0.28; personal accomplishment r = 0.25; depersonalisation r = 4.26; mental health r = -0.19. Exploratory factors analysis have not confirmed theoretical structure of the SPCW Questionnaire.

[Mental health status in workers: the results based on the Munich version of the International Composite Diagnostic Interview (M-CIDI)]

The present study was undertaken with two objectives. First, to assess the prevalence of mental health disorders among primary health patients. All the subjects under study (n = 170) had at least part time job. The mental health status of the patients was assessed on the basis of standardized psychiatric interview, M-CIDI (computer version). More than a half of the study population (51.8%) had at least one diagnosis of mental health disorder. The following disorders were most common in the group: neurotic, stress-related and somaform disorders (32.9%), mental and behavioral disorders due to psychoactive substance use (26.5; 11.8%--nicotine dependence) and mood (affective) disorders (16.5%). Two or more mental health disorders were diagnosed in every second person. Second, to evaluate the usefulness of M-CIDI as a tool for assessing psychiatric problems. Taking into account the research experience, M-CIDI is a valuable and easy to use diagnostic tool for detecting mental health disorders. The most important advantage of this instrument relies on its standardization that allows to carry out examinations even by persons who have no knowledge of psychiatry. The computer version of the M-CIDI is little time-consuming, simple and easy to operate as compared to the paper-pencil version It also has a quick access to the data base with the stored information about patients and their diagnoses.

[The usefulness of the Health Status Questionnaire: D. Goldberg's GHQ-12 and GHQ-28 for diagnosis of mental disorders in workers]

The General Health Questionnaires, developed by D. Goldberg (GHQ-12 and GHQ-28), are self-administered screening instruments designed to detect current diagnosable changes in the mental health status and to identify cases of potential mental disorders leaving a detailed diagnosis to a psychiatric interview. The General Health Questionnaires were designed for the use in primary health care settings, in the general population surveys or in general medical practice. The validation studies of the Polish version of GHQ-12 and GHQ-28 are described. The internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach alpha) reached the value of 0.859 for GHQ-12 in the study of 2540 employees, and 0.934 for GHQ-28 in the group of 1108 employees. The coefficients obtained in our studies are comparable to those reported by other authors who carried out investigations in populations of various countries. Test-retest reliability (ru approximately 0.7) seems to be good enough, taking account of the fact that the methods presented are aimed at diagnosing the state of mental health and not its stable traits. Having obtained significant differences in scores assigned to patients examined in settings at different levels of health care (a significant increase in GHQ scores of patients examined in psychiatric clinic as compared to patients of primary health care settings) it may be concluded that the criteria validity of both questionnaires is satisfactory.

The assessment of Big Five Personality Factors and Temperament Domains as modifiers of cardiovascular response to occupational stress

The aim of the study was to explore the role of Big Five Personality Factors and Temperament Domains as the factors influencing cardiovascular response to work, and their moderating effect on the relationship between occupational stress and cardiovascular reactivity. The self-reported data on occupational stress and filled in NEO-Five Factor Inventory by Costa, and McCrae and Pavlovian Temperament Survey by Strelau et al. were collected from 97 bank clerks employed in large bank branches. The subjects also responded to the questionnaire on personal and professional background factors. A 24 hour monitoring of cardiovascular reactivity (heart rate and blood pressure) was also provided. Conscientiousness was found to be the only modifier of cardiovascular response to occupational stress reflected by systolic blood pressure. Several main, independent of stress effects of personality and temperament domains were also found. The ratio of heart rate at work to heart rate during sleep was associated with the strength of excitatory process, the percentage of maximum heart rate index with Conscientiousness, and systolic blood pressure at work was influenced by the strength of inhibitory process. However, generally speaking, physiological indicators of the cardiovascular system functioning were not very sensitive to changes in values of personality and temperament variables at the level of occupational stress reported by the bank clerks who participated in the study.

Impairment of psychological functions in children environmentally exposed to lead

The major objective of the study was to determine whether environmental exposure to lead exerts a negative impact upon psychological functions in children. The examined group consisted fo school age children (6-15 years old, x = 9.5, SD = 1.4) living close to copper works. Out of 4548 children with measured blood lead concentrations, two groups were selected one with the highest exposure levels (12.0-27.2 micrograms/dl) and the other drawn from the remaining children, with low blood lead levels. The mean exposure level for the whole examined group equalled 10.18 mu/dl PbB (SD-4.73 micrograms/dl). To assess effects of the exposure, the following variables were measured in the examined children: intelligence, hand-eye coordination, perception, memory, reaction time and accuracy, and behaviour disorders. The moderator variables of sociodemographic character, i.e. parents' education, income, etc., were also controlled. A significant impact of lead upon psychological functions and behaviour was revealed for two variables only: intelligence and attention concentration. An increase in the exposure level by 10 micrograms/dl PbB was associated with deterioration of general IQ by 5.3 points and growth of the number of mistakes in the Simple Reaction Time test by 3.3. It was also revealed that the short-term memory deteriorates with growing level of exposure, the strength of this relationship was close to the level of statistical significance (p < 0.07).