Facile Purification and Use of Tobamoviral Nanocarriers for Antibody-Mediated Display of a Two-Enzyme System

Immunosorbent turnip vein clearing virus (TVCV) particles displaying the IgG-binding domains D and E of Staphylococcus aureus protein A (PA) on every coat protein (CP) subunit (TVCVPA) were purified from plants via optimized and new protocols. The latter used polyethylene glycol (PEG) raw precipitates, from which virions were selectively re-solubilized in reverse PEG concentration gradients. This procedure improved the integrity of both TVCVPA and the wild-type subgroup 3 tobamovirus. TVCVPA could be loaded with more than 500 IgGs per virion, which mediated the immunocapture of fluorescent dyes, GFP, and active enzymes. Bi-enzyme ensembles of cooperating glucose oxidase and horseradish peroxidase were tethered together on the TVCVPA carriers via a single antibody type, with one enzyme conjugated chemically to its Fc region, and the other one bound as a target, yielding synthetic multi-enzyme complexes. In microtiter plates, the TVCVPA-displayed sugar-sensing system possessed a considerably increased reusability upon repeated testing, compared to the IgG-bound enzyme pair in the absence of the virus. A high coverage of the viral adapters was also achieved on Ta2O5 sensor chip surfaces coated with a polyelectrolyte interlayer, as a prerequisite for durable TVCVPA-assisted electrochemical biosensing via modularly IgG-assembled sensor enzymes.

Bottom-Up Assembly of TMV-Based Nucleoprotein Architectures on Solid Supports

RNA-guided self-assembly of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)-like nucleoprotein nanotubes is possible using 3'-terminally surface-linked scaffold RNAs containing the viral origin of assembly (OAS). In combination with TMV coat protein (CP) preparations, these scaffold RNAs can direct the growth of selectively addressable multivalent carrier particles directly at sites of interest on demand. Serving as adapter templates for the installation of functional molecules, they may promote an integration of active units into miniaturized technical devices, or enable their presentation on soft-matter nanotube systems at high surface densities advantageous for, for example, biodetection or purification applications. This chapter describes all procedures essential for the bottom-up fabrication of "nanostar" colloids with gold cores and multiple TMV-like arms, immobilized in a programmable manner by way of hybridization of the RNA scaffolds to oligodeoxynucleotides exposed on the gold beads.

Dynamic DNA-controlled "stop-and-go" assembly of well-defined protein domains on RNA-scaffolded TMV-like nanotubes

A DNA-based approach allows external control over the self-assembly process of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)-like ribonucleoprotein nanotubes: their growth from viral coat protein (CP) subunits on five distinct RNA scaffolds containing the TMV origin of assembly (OAs) could be temporarily blocked by a stopper DNA oligomer hybridized downstream (3') of the OAs. At two upstream (5') sites tested, simple hybridization was not sufficient for stable stalling, which correlates with previous findings on a non-symmetric assembly of TMV. The growth of DNA-arrested particles could be restarted efficiently by displacement of the stopper via its toehold by using a release DNA oligomer, even after storage for twelve days. This novel strategy for growing proteinaceous tubes under tight kinetic and spatial control combines RNA guidance and its site-specific but reversible interruption by DNA blocking elements. As three of the RNA scaffolds contained long heterologous non-TMV sequence portions that included the stopping sites, this method is applicable to all RNAs amenable to TMV CP encapsidation, albeit with variable efficiency most likely depending on the scaffolds' secondary structures. The use of two distinct, selectively addressable CP variants during the serial assembly stages finally enabled an externally configured fabrication of nanotubes with highly defined subdomains. The "stop-and-go" strategy thus might pave the way towards production routines of TMV-like particles with variable aspect ratios from a single RNA scaffold, and of nanotubes with two or even more adjacent protein domains of tightly pre-defined lengths.

Novel roles for well-known players: from tobacco mosaic virus pests to enzymatically active assemblies

The rod-shaped nanoparticles of the widespread plant pathogen tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) have been a matter of intense debates and cutting-edge research for more than a hundred years. During the late 19th century, their behavior in filtration tests applied to the agent causing the 'plant mosaic disease' eventually led to the discrimination of viruses from bacteria. Thereafter, they promoted the development of biophysical cornerstone techniques such as electron microscopy and ultracentrifugation. Since the 1950s, the robust, helically arranged nucleoprotein complexes consisting of a single RNA and more than 2100 identical coat protein subunits have enabled molecular studies which have pioneered the understanding of viral replication and self-assembly, and elucidated major aspects of virus-host interplay, which can lead to agronomically relevant diseases. However, during the last decades, TMV has acquired a new reputation as a well-defined high-yield nanotemplate with multivalent protein surfaces, allowing for an ordered high-density presentation of multiple active molecules or synthetic compounds. Amino acid side chains exposed on the viral coat may be tailored genetically or biochemically to meet the demands for selective conjugation reactions, or to directly engineer novel functionality on TMV-derived nanosticks. The natural TMV size (length: 300 nm) in combination with functional ligands such as peptides, enzymes, dyes, drugs or inorganic materials is advantageous for applications ranging from biomedical imaging and therapy approaches over surface enlargement of battery electrodes to the immobilization of enzymes. TMV building blocks are also amenable to external control of in vitro assembly and re-organization into technically expedient new shapes or arrays, which bears a unique potential for the development of 'smart' functional 3D structures. Among those, materials designed for enzyme-based biodetection layouts, which are routinely applied, e.g., for monitoring blood sugar concentrations, might profit particularly from the presence of TMV rods: Their surfaces were recently shown to stabilize enzymatic activities upon repeated consecutive uses and over several weeks. This review gives the reader a ride through strikingly diverse achievements obtained with TMV-based particles, compares them to the progress with related viruses, and focuses on latest results revealing special advantages for enzyme-based biosensing formats, which might be of high interest for diagnostics employing 'systems-on-a-chip'.

Modified TMV Particles as Beneficial Scaffolds to Present Sensor Enzymes

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a robust nanotubular nucleoprotein scaffold increasingly employed for the high density presentation of functional molecules such as peptides, fluorescent dyes, and antibodies. We report on its use as advantageous carrier for sensor enzymes. A TMV mutant with a cysteine residue exposed on every coat protein (CP) subunit (TMVCys) enabled the coupling of bifunctional maleimide-polyethylene glycol (PEG)-biotin linkers (TMVCys/Bio). Its surface was equipped with two streptavidin [SA]-conjugated enzymes: glucose oxidase ([SA]-GOx) and horseradish peroxidase ([SA]-HRP). At least 50% of the CPs were decorated with a linker molecule, and all thereof with active enzymes. Upon use as adapter scaffolds in conventional "high-binding" microtiter plates, TMV sticks allowed the immobilization of up to 45-fold higher catalytic activities than control samples with the same input of enzymes. Moreover, they increased storage stability and reusability in relation to enzymes applied directly to microtiter plate wells. The functionalized TMV adsorbed to solid supports showed a homogeneous distribution of the conjugated enzymes and structural integrity of the nanorods upon transmission electron and atomic force microscopy. The high surface-increase and steric accessibility of the viral scaffolds in combination with the biochemical environment provided by the plant viral coat may explain the beneficial effects. TMV can, thus, serve as a favorable multivalent nanoscale platform for the ordered presentation of bioactive proteins.

The Impact of Aspect Ratio on the Biodistribution and Tumor Homing of Rigid Soft-Matter Nanorods

The size and shape of nanocarriers can affect their fate in vivo, but little is known about the effect of nanocarrier aspect ratio on biodistribution in the setting of cancer imaging and drug delivery. The production of nanoscale anisotropic materials is a technical challenge. A unique biotemplating approach based on of rod-shaped nucleoprotein nanoparticles with predetermined aspect ratios (AR 3.5, 7, and 16.5) is used. These rigid, soft-matter nanoassemblies are derived from tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) components. The role of nanoparticle aspect ratio is investigated, while keeping the surface chemistries constant, using either PEGylated stealth nanoparticles or receptor-targeted RGD-displaying formulations. Aspect ratio has a profound impact on the behavior of the nanoparticles in vivo and in vitro. PEGylated nanorods with the lowest aspect ratio (AR 3.5) achieve the most efficient passive tumor-homing behavior because they can diffuse most easily, whereas RGD-labeled particles with a medium aspect ratio (AR 7) are more efficient at tumor targeting because this requires a balance between infusibility and ligand-receptor interactions. The in vivo behavior of nanoparticles can therefore be tailored to control biodistribution, longevity, and tumor penetration by modulating a single parameter: the aspect ratio of the nanocarrier.

RNA-controlled assembly of tobacco mosaic virus-derived complex structures: from nanoboomerangs to tetrapods

The in vitro assembly of artificial nanotubular nucleoprotein shapes based on tobacco mosaic virus-(TMV-)-derived building blocks yielded different spatial organizations of viral coat protein subunits on genetically engineered RNA molecules, containing two or multiple TMV origins of assembly (OAs). The growth of kinked nanoboomerangs as well as of branched multipods was determined by the encapsidated RNAs. A largely simultaneous initiation at two origins and subsequent bidirectional tube elongation could be visualized by transmission electron microscopy of intermediates and final products. Collision of the nascent tubes' ends produced angular particles with well-defined arm lengths. RNAs with three to five OAs generated branched multipods with a maximum of four arms. The potential of such an RNA-directed self-assembly of uncommon nanotubular architectures for the fabrication of complex multivalent nanotemplates used in functional hybrid materials is discussed.

TMV nanorods with programmed longitudinal domains of differently addressable coat proteins

The spacing of functional nanoscopic elements may play a fundamental role in nanotechnological and biomedical applications, but is so far rarely achieved on this scale. In this study we show that tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and the RNA-guided self-assembly process of its coat protein (CP) can be used to establish new nanorod scaffolds that can be loaded not only with homogeneously distributed functionalities, but with distinct molecule species grouped and ordered along the longitudinal axis. The arrangement of the resulting domains and final carrier rod length both were governed by RNA-templated two-step in vitro assembly. Two selectively addressable TMV CP mutants carrying either thiol (TMVCys) or amino (TMVLys) groups on the exposed surface were engineered and shown to retain reactivity towards maleimides or NHS esters, respectively, after acetic acid-based purification and re-assembly to novel carrier rod types. Stepwise combination of CP(Cys) and CP(Lys) with RNA allowed fabrication of TMV-like nanorods with a controlled total length of 300 or 330 nm, respectively, consisting of adjacent longitudinal 100-to-200 nm domains of differently addressable CP species. This technology paves the way towards rod-shaped scaffolds with pre-defined, selectively reactive barcode patterns on the nanometer scale.

M1.3--a small scaffold for DNA origami

The DNA origami method produces programmable nanoscale objects that form when one long scaffold strand hybridizes to numerous oligonucleotide staple strands. One scaffold strand is dominating the field: M13mp18, a bacteriophage-derived vector 7249 nucleotides in length. The full-length M13 is typically folded by using over 200 staple oligonucleotides. Here we report the convenient preparation of a 704 nt fragment dubbed "M1.3" as a linear or cyclic scaffold and the assembly of small origami structures with just 15-24 staple strands. A typical M1.3 origami is large enough to be visualized by TEM, but small enough to show a cooperativity in its assembly and thermal denaturation that is reminiscent of oligonucleotide duplexes. Due to its medium size, M1.3 origami with globally modified staples is affordable. As a proof of principle, two origami structures with globally 5'-capped staples were prepared and were shown to give higher UV-melting points than the corresponding assembly with unmodified DNA. M1.3 has the size of a gene, not a genome, and may function as a model for gene-based nanostructures. Small origami with M1.3 as a scaffold may serve as a workbench for chemical, physical, and biological experiments.

New approaches for bottom-up assembly of tobacco mosaic virus-derived nucleoprotein tubes on defined patterns on silica- and polymer-based substrates

The capability of some natural molecular building blocks to self-organize into defined supramolecular architectures is a versatile tool for nanotechnological applications. Their site-selective integration into a technical context, however, still poses a major challenge. RNA-directed self-assembly of tobacco mosaic virus-derived coat protein on immobilized RNA scaffolds presents a possibility to grow nucleoprotein nanotubes in place. Two new methods for their site-selective, bottom-up assembly are introduced. For this purpose, isothiocyanate alkoxysilane was used to activate oxidic surfaces for the covalent immobilization of DNA oligomers, which served as linkers for assembly-directing RNA. Patterned silanization of surfaces was achieved (1) on oxidic surfaces via dip-pen nanolithography and (2) on polymer surfaces (poly(dimethylsiloxane)) via selective oxidization by UV-light irradiation in air. Atomic force microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy were used to characterize the surfaces. It is shown for the first time that the combination of the mentioned structuring methods and the isothiocyanate-based chemistry is appropriate (1) for the site-selective immobilization of nucleic acids and, thus, (2) for the formation of viral nanoparticles by bottom-up self-assembly after adding the corresponding coat proteins.

Inducible site-selective bottom-up assembly of virus-derived nanotube arrays on RNA-equipped wafers

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a tube-shaped, exceptionally stable plant virus, which is among the biomolecule complexes offering most promising perspectives for nanotechnology applications. Every viral nanotube self-assembles from a single RNA strand and numerous identical coat protein (CP) subunits. Here we demonstrate that biotechnologically engineered RNA species containing the TMV origin of assembly can be selectively attached to solid surfaces via one end and govern the bottom-up growth of surface-linked TMV-like nanotubes in situ on demand. SiO(2) wafers patterned by polymer blend lithography were modified in a chemically selective manner, which allowed positioning of in vitro produced RNA scaffolds into predefined patches on the 100-500 nm scale. The RNA operated as guiding strands for the self-assembly of spatially ordered nanotube 3D arrays on the micrometer scale. This novel approach may promote technically applicable production routes toward a controlled integration of multivalent biotemplates into miniaturized devices to functionalize poorly accessible components prior to use. Furthermore, the results mark a milestone in the experimental verification of viral nucleoprotein complex self-assembly mechanisms.