Detection of border disease virus in Mexican cattle

The genus Pestivirus within Flaviviridae is comprised of four recognized species, namely, bovine viral diarrhoea virus 1 (BVDV-1), bovine viral diarrhoea virus 2 (BVDV-2), border disease virus (BDV) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV). BDV, while primarily infecting sheep and goats, has also been reported in cattle and wild animals. Infections of sheep and goats result in economic loss due to abortions and the birth of persistently infected animals that have poor production and reduced life expectancy. In this study, we report the detection of BDV in cattle serum collected as part of pestivirus surveillance programme from six regions of Mexico, where a 67.1% of BVDV seroprevalence was calculated previously. Phylogenetic analyses based on comparison of the 5'UTR region typed the Mexican strains as BDV-1. Border disease (BD) is listed as an exotic disease in Mexico, and the origin of BDV found in these cattle is unclear. This is the first identification of BDV in Mexican cattle.

Antigenic diversity of Brazilian isolates of HoBi-like pestiviruses

Hobi-like viruses comprise an unclassified group of bovine pestiviruses related to bovine viral diarrhea virus 1 (BVDV-1) and 2 (BVDV-2). These viruses were originally identified in fetal bovine serum from Brazilian origin and, subsequently, isolated from diseased animals in several countries. Herein we performed an antigenic characterization of eight Brazilian HoBi-like viruses isolated from persistently infected (PI) animals and from gastroenteric disease (2007-2015). Phylogenetic analysis based on the 5' unstranslated region (UTR) clustered these viruses with other HoBi-like viruses from European and Asiatic origin. Monoclonal antibody (MAb) binding indicated variability in the Hobi-like virus glycoprotein E2 and significant differences from the homologous BVDV-1 and BVDV-2 glycoprotein. Analysis of antigenic relatedness based on virus-neutralizing titers using virus-specific antisera revealed that HoBi-like viruses are antigenically very different from BVDV-1 and, to a lesser extent, from BVDV-2. Cross-neutralizing assays between pairs of HoBi-like viruses and their respective antisera indicated the existence of antigenic variability among these viruses, even for viruses isolated from the same herd in different occasions. Moreover, the identification of a HoBi-like isolate with low antigenic similarity with the other isolates indicates the potential existence of antigenic subgroups among HoBi-like virus isolates. Finally, sera of lambs immunized with commercial BVDV vaccines showed low or undetectable neutralizing activity against HoBi-like isolates. These results indicate significant antigenic differences between BVDV genotypes and Brazilian HoBi-like viruses and the existence of antigenic variability within this atypical group of pestiviruses. These findings extend the knowledge about the antigenic diversity of HoBi-like viruses and reinforce the need for their inclusion in current BVDV vaccines.

Comparison of 'HoBi'-like viral populations among persistent infected calves generated under experimental conditions and to inoculum virus

Like other members from the Pestivirus genus, 'HoBi'-like pestiviruses cause economic losses for cattle producers due to both acute and persistent infections. The present study analyzed for the first time PI animals derived from a controlled infection with two different 'HoBi'-like strains where the animals were maintained under conditions where superinfection by other pestiviruses could be excluded. The sequence of the region coding for viral glycoproteins E1/E2 of variants within the swarms of viruses present in the PI calves and two viral inoculums used to generate them were compared. Differences in genetic composition of the viral swarms were observed suggesting that host factors can play a role in genetic variations among PIs. Moreover, PIs generated with the same inoculum showed amino acid substitutions in similar sites of the polyprotein, even in serum from PIs with different quasispecies composition, reinforcing that some specific sites in E2 are important for host adaptation.

Comparison of the breadth and complexity of bovine viral diarrhea (BVDV) populations circulating in 34 persistently infected cattle generated in one outbreak

Exposure to bovine viral diarrhea viruses (BVDV) results in acute and persistent infections. Persistent infections result from in utero exposure during the first trimester of gestation. Clinical presentation, in persistently infected cattle (PI), is highly variable. The reasons for this variation is largely unknown. The BVDV circulating in PI exist as quasispecies (swarms of individual viruses). An outbreak resulting in 34 PI cattle presented an opportunity to compare a large number of PI׳s. Methods were developed to compare the circulating viral populations within PI animals. It was found that PI animals generated in the same outbreak carry circulating viral populations that differ widely in size and diversity. Further, it was demonstrated that variation in PI viral populations could be used as a quantifiable phenotype. This observation makes it possible to test the correlation of this phenotype to other phenotypes such as growth rate, congenital defects, viral shed and cytokine expression.

Emerging animal viruses: real threats or simple bystanders?

The list of animal viruses has been frequently added of new members raising permanent concerns to virologists and veterinarians. The pathogenic potential and association with disease have been clearly demonstrated for some, but not for all of these emerging viruses. This review describes recent discoveries of animal viruses and their potential relevance for veterinary practice. Dogs were considered refractory to influenza viruses until 2004, when an influenza A virus subtype H3N8 was transmitted from horses and produced severe respiratory disease in racing greyhounds in Florida/USA. The novel virus, named canine influenza virus (CIV), is considered now a separate virus lineage and has spread among urban canine population in the USA. A new pestivirus (Flaviviridae), tentatively called HoBi-like pestivirus, was identified in 2004 in commercial fetal bovine serum from Brazil. Hobi-like viruses are genetically and antigenically related to bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and induce similar clinical manifestations. These novel viruses seem to be widespread in Brazilian herds and have also been detected in Southeast Asia and Europe. In 2011, a novel mosquito-borne orthobunyavirus, named Schmallenberg virus (SBV), was associated with fever, drop in milk production, abortion and newborn malformation in cattle and sheep in Germany. Subsequently, the virus disseminated over several European countries and currently represents a real treat for animal health. The origin of SBV is still a matter of debate but it may be a reassortant from previous known bunyaviruses Shamonda and Satuperi. Hepatitis E virus (HEV, family Hepeviridae) is a long known agent of human acute hepatitis and in 1997 was first identified in pigs. Current data indicates that swine HEV is spread worldwide, mainly associated with subclinical infection. Two of the four HEV genotypes are zoonotic and may be transmitted between swine and human by contaminated water and undercooked pork meat. The current distribution and impact of HEV infection in swine production are largely unknown. Avian gyrovirus type 2 (AGV2) is a newly described Gyrovirus, family Circoviridae, which was unexpectedly found in sera of poultry suspected to be infected with chicken anemia virus (CAV). AGV2 is closely related to CAV but displays sufficient genomic differences to be classified as a distinct species. AGV2 seems to be distributed in Brazil and also in other countries but its pathogenic role for chickens is still under investigation. Finally, the long time and intensive search for animal relatives of human hepatitis C virus (HCV) has led to the identification of novel hepaciviruses in dogs (canine hepacivirus [CHV]), horses (non-primate hepaciviruses [NPHV] or Theiler's disease associated virus [TDAV]) and rodents. For these, a clear and definitive association with disease is still lacking and only time and investigation will tell whether they are real disease agents or simple spectators.