Developing capacity for implementation and evaluation of vaccine trials in Uganda: Perspective of the Makerere University Walter Reed Project

Introduction: Infectious diseases and neglected tropical diseases continue to be a major challenge in resource limited settings, causing significant morbidity and mortality. Although vaccines are a key biomedical prevention tool, resource limited settings often lack the infrastructure, regulatory frameworks, and skilled human resource to conduct vaccine clinical trials. To address this gap, the Makerere University Walter Reed Project (MUWRP) was established and has contributed to vaccine research in Uganda and globally. Methods: This was achieved through training a strong vaccine clinical trial workforce; development of requisite clinical trial infrastructure for research activities and management of investigational products; conducting phase I-III vaccine trials and contribution to national ethical and regulatory frameworks that protect participants. Results: As of 2022, MUWRP had successfully conducted and completed five phase I/II HIV vaccine clinical trials, five for Ebola and Marburg, while one phase I/II Schistosomiasis and one phase III COVID-19 vaccine clinical trial are ongoing. Discussion: The completed vaccine trials provided critical scientific knowledge on the safety and immunogenicity of investigational products which informed the design of better vaccines for diseases of global health importance. Conclusion: Academia, through establishment of appropriate partnerships can contribute to the identification of solutions to complex public health challenges. Keywords: Vaccines; community participation; developing countries.

Dolutegravir or Darunavir in Combination with Zidovudine or Tenofovir to Treat HIV

BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization recommends dolutegravir with two nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) for second-line treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. Evidence is limited for the efficacy of this regimen when NRTIs are predicted to lack activity because of drug resistance, as well as for the recommended switch of an NRTI from tenofovir to zidovudine.

METHODS

In a two-by-two factorial, open-label, noninferiority trial, we randomly assigned patients for whom first-line therapy was failing (HIV-1 viral load, ≥1000 copies per milliliter) to receive dolutegravir or ritonavir-boosted darunavir and to receive tenofovir or zidovudine; all patients received lamivudine. The primary outcome was a week 48 viral load of less than 400 copies per milliliter, assessed with the Food and Drug Administration snapshot algorithm (noninferiority margin for the between-group difference in the percentage of patients with the primary outcome, 12 percentage points).

RESULTS

We enrolled 464 patients at seven sub-Saharan African sites. A week 48 viral load of less than 400 copies per milliliter was observed in 90.2% of the patients in the dolutegravir group (212 of 235) and in 91.7% of those in the darunavir group (210 of 229) (difference, -1.5 percentage points; 95% confidence interval [CI], -6.7 to 3.7; P = 0.58; indicating noninferiority of dolutegravir, without superiority) and in 92.3% of the patients in the tenofovir group (215 of 233) and in 89.6% of those in the zidovudine group (207 of 231) (difference, 2.7 percentage points; 95% CI, -2.6 to 7.9; P = 0.32; indicating noninferiority of tenofovir, without superiority). In the subgroup of patients with no NRTIs that were predicted to have activity, a viral load of less than 400 copies per milliliter was observed in more than 90% of the patients in the dolutegravir group and the darunavir group. The incidence of adverse events did not differ substantially between the groups in either factorial comparison.

CONCLUSIONS

Dolutegravir in combination with NRTIs was effective in treating patients with HIV-1 infection, including those with extensive NRTI resistance in whom no NRTIs were predicted to have activity. Tenofovir was noninferior to zidovudine as second-line therapy. (Funded by Janssen; NADIA ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03988452.).

Sex, HIV Status, and Measures of Cardiac Stress and Fibrosis in Uganda

Background

Biomarkers of myocardial stress and fibrosis are elevated in people living with HIV and are associated with cardiac dysfunction. It is unknown whether sex influences these markers of heart failure risk in sub‐Saharan Africa, where HIV burden is high and where the vast majority of women with HIV live.

Methods and Results

Echocardiograms and 6 plasma biomarkers (suppression of tumorigenicity‐2, growth differentiation factor 15, galectin 3, soluble fms‐like tyrosine kinase‐1, NT‐proBNP [N‐terminal pro‐B‐type natriuretic peptide], and cystatin C) were obtained from 100 people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy and 100 HIV‐negative controls in Uganda. All participants were ≥45 years old with ≥1 major cardiovascular risk factor. Multivariable linear and logistic regression models were used to assess associations between biomarkers, echocardiographic variables, HIV status, and sex, and to assess whether sex modified these associations. Overall, mean age was 56 years and 62% were women. Suppression of tumorigenicity‐2 was higher in men versus women (P<0.001), and growth differentiation factor 15 was higher in people living with HIV versus controls (P<0.001). Sex modified the HIV effect on cystatin C and NT‐proBNP (both P for interaction <0.025). Women had more diastolic dysfunction than men (P=0.02), but there was no evidence of sex‐modifying HIV effects on cardiac structure and function. Cardiac biomarkers were more strongly associated with left ventricular mass index in men compared with women.

Conclusions

There are prominent differences in biomarkers of cardiac fibrosis and stress by sex and HIV status in Uganda. The predictive value of cardiac biomarkers for heart failure in people living with HIV in sub‐Saharan Africa should be examined, and novel risk markers for women should be further explored.

HIV and pericardial fat are associated with abnormal cardiac structure and function among Ugandans

OBJECTIVES

To examine the relationship between pericardial fat (PCF) and cardiac structure and function among HIV-infected patients in the sub-Saharan African country of Uganda. People living with HIV (PLHIV) have altered fat distribution and an elevated risk for heart failure. Whether altered quantity and radiodensity of fat surrounding the heart relates to cardiac dysfunction in this population is unknown.

METHODS

One hundred HIV-positive Ugandans on antiretroviral therapy were compared with 100 age and sex-matched HIV-negative Ugandans; all were >45 years old with >1 cardiovascular disease risk factor. Subjects underwent ECG-gated non-contrast cardiac CT and transthoracic echocardiography with speckle tracking strain imaging. Multivariable linear and logistic regression models were used to explore the association of PCF with echocardiographic outcomes.

RESULTS

Median age was 55% and 62% were female. Compared with uninfected controls, PLHIV had lower body mass index (27 vs 30, p=0.02) and less diabetes (26% vs 45%, p=0.005). Median left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction was 67%. In models adjusted for traditional risk factors, HIV was associated with 10.3 g/m² higher LV mass index (LVMI) (95% CI 3.22 to 17.4; p=0.005), 0.87% worse LV global longitudinal strain (GLS) (95% CI -1.66 to -0.07; p=0.03) and higher odds of diastolic dysfunction (OR 1.96; 95% CI 0.95 to 4.06; p=0.07). In adjusted models, PCF volume was significantly associated with increased LVMI and worse LV GLS, while PCF radiodensity was associated with worse LV GLS (all p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

In Uganda, HIV infection, PCF volume and density are associated with abnormal cardiac structure and function.

Coronary artery calcium, HIV and inflammation in Uganda compared with the USA

Objectives

To compare the prevalence of detectable coronary artery calcium (CAC) among higher risk, older people living with HIV (PLWH) and uninfected persons in Uganda versus the USA, and second to explore associations of CAC with HIV-specific variables and biomarkers of inflammation.

Methods

This cross-sectional study of 430 total subjects compared 100 PLWH on antiretroviral therapy and 100 age-matched and sex-matched HIV-uninfected controls in Uganda with 167 PLWH on antiretroviral therapy and 63 uninfected controls in the USA. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine associations with detectable CAC (CAC >0).

Results

Compared with US subjects, Ugandans were older (mean age 56 vs 52 years) and were more likely to have diabetes (36% vs 3%) and hypertension (85% vs 36%), but were less likely to be male (38% vs 74%) or smokers (4% vs 56%). After adjustment for HIV serostatus, age, sex and traditional risk factors, Ugandans had substantially lower odds of CAC >0 (adjusted OR 0.07 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.17), p<0.001). HIV was not associated with CAC >0 in either country (p>0.1). Among all PLWH, nadir CD4 count was associated with the presence of CAC, and among Ugandans soluble intercellular adhesion molecule (p=0.044), soluble CD163 (p=0.004) and oxidised low-density lipoprotein (p=0.043) were all associated with the presence of CAC.

Conclusions

Ugandans had a dramatically lower prevalence of any coronary calcification compared with US subjects. The role of HIV infection and inflammation as risk factors for subclinical coronary disease in sub-Saharan Africa merits further investigation.

Rheumatic Heart Disease Treatment Cascade in Uganda

BACKGROUND

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is a leading cause of premature death and disability in low-income countries; however, few receive optimal benzathine penicillin G (BPG) therapy to prevent disease progression. We aimed to comprehensively describe the treatment cascade for RHD in Uganda to identify appropriate targets for intervention.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Using data from the Uganda RHD Registry (n=1504), we identified the proportion of patients in the following care categories: (1) diagnosed and alive as of June 1, 2016; (2) retained in care; (3) appropriately prescribed BPG; and (4) optimally adherent to BPG (>80% of prescribed doses). We used logistic regression to investigate factors associated with retention and optimal adherence. Overall, median (interquartile range) age was 23 (15-38) years, 69% were women, and 82% had clinical RHD. Median follow-up time was 2.4 (0.9-4.0) years. Retention in care was the most significant barrier to achieving optimal BPG adherence with only 56.9% (95% confidence interval, 54.1%-59.7%) of living subjects having attended clinic in the prior 56 weeks. Among those retained in care, however, we observed high rates of BPG prescription (91.6%; 95% confidence interval, 89.1%-93.5%) and optimal adherence (91.4%; 95% confidence interval, 88.7-93.5). Younger age, latent disease status, and access to care at a regional center were the strongest independent predictors of retention and optimal adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that improving retention in care-possibly by decentralizing RHD services-would have the greatest impact on uptake of antibiotic prophylaxis among patients with RHD in Uganda.

Impact of regionalisation of a national rheumatic heart disease registry: the Ugandan experience

Objectives

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) remains a major driver of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in low-resource settings. Registry-based care for RHD has been advocated as a powerful tool to improve clinical care and track quality metrics. Data collected through an RHD registry may also reveal epidemiological and geospatial trends, as well as insight into care utilisation. Uganda established a central RHD registry at the country's only tertiary cardiac centre in 2010. In 2014 RHD care and registry enrolment expanded to the Western region and in 2015 to the North. Here, we examine the geographical distribution of RHD cases in Uganda and the impact of registry expansion.

Methods

A retrospective search of the Ugandan national RHD registry was preformed to capture all cases of acute rheumatic fever or clinical RHD from January 2010 through July 2016. A geospatial analysis revealed that the density of detected cases (cases/100 000 district residents) reflected proximity to an RHD registry enrolment centre. Regionalisation improved the number of cases detected in the regions of expansion and improved retention of patients in care.

Results and conclusions

RHD appears to have uniform distribution throughout Uganda with geographical clustering surrounding RHD registry enrolment centres reflecting access to care, rather than differences in prevalence. Higher rates of case detection and improved retention in care with regionalisation highlight the urgent need for decentralisation of cardiovascular services. Future studies should examine sustainable models for cardiovascular care delivery, including task shifting of clinical care and echocardiography and use of telemedicine.

Latent Rheumatic Heart Disease: Identifying the Children at Highest Risk of Unfavorable Outcome

BACKGROUND

Screening echocardiography has emerged as a potentially powerful tool for early diagnosis of rheumatic heart disease (RHD). The utility of screening echocardiography hinges on the rate of RHD progression and the ability of penicillin prophylaxis to improve outcome. We report the longitudinal outcomes of a cohort of children with latent RHD and identify risk factors for unfavorable outcomes.

METHODS

This was a prospective natural history study conducted under the Ugandan RHD registry. Children with latent RHD and ≥1 year of follow-up were included. All echocardiograms were re-reviewed by experts (2012 World Heart Federation criteria) for inclusion and evidence of change. Bi- and multivariable logistic regression, Kaplan-Meier analysis, and Cox proportional hazards models, as well, were developed to search for risk factors for unfavorable outcome and compare progression-free survival between those treated and not treated with penicillin. Propensity and other matching methods with sensitivity analysis were implemented for the evaluation of the penicillin effect.

RESULTS

Blinded review confirmed 227 cases of latent RHD: 164 borderline and 63 definite (42 mild, 21 moderate/severe). Median age at diagnosis was 12 years and median follow-up was 2.3 years (interquartile range, 2.0-2.9). Penicillin prophylaxis was prescribed in 49.3% with overall adherence of 84.7%. Of children with moderate-to-severe definite RHD, 47.6% had echocardiographic progression (including 2 deaths), and 9.5% had echocardiographic regression. Children with mild definite and borderline RHD showed 26% and 9.8% echocardiographic progression and 45.2% and 46.3% echocardiographic improvement, respectively. Of those with mild definite RHD or borderline RHD, more advanced disease category, younger age, and morphological mitral valve features were risk factors for an unfavorable outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Latent RHD is a heterogeneous diagnosis with variable disease outcomes. Children with moderate to severe latent RHD have poor outcomes. Children with both borderline and mild definite RHD are at substantial risk of progression. Although long-term outcome remains unclear, the initial change in latent RHD may be evident during the first 1 to 2 years following diagnosis. Natural history data are inherently limited, and a randomized clinical trial is needed to definitively determine the impact of penicillin prophylaxis on the trajectory of latent RHD.

Acceptability of lopinavir/r pellets (minitabs), tablets and syrups in HIV-infected children

BACKGROUND

Lopinavir/ritonavir 'pellets' were recently tentatively approved for licensing. We describe their acceptability for infants and children up to 48 weeks.

METHODS

CHAPAS-2 was a randomized, two-period crossover trial comparing syrup and pellets in HIV-infected infants (n=19, group A, aged 3-<12 months) and children (n=26, group B, 1-<4 years) and tablets and pellets in older children (n=32, group C, 4-<13 years) from two clinics ('JCRC', 'PIDC') in Uganda. At week 8, all groups chose which formulation to continue. Acceptability data were collected at weeks 0, 4, 8, 12 and 48.

RESULTS

For groups A and B overall, the proportion preferring pellets increased between week 0 and week 12 and decreased at week 48 (group A 37%, 72%, 44%; group B 12%, 64% and 36%, respectively), although there were marked differences between clinics. For group C, pellets were progressively less preferred to tablets over time: 41%, 19% and 13% at weeks 0, 12 and 48, respectively. During follow-up unpleasant taste was similarly reported among young children taking pellets and syrups (37%/43% group A; 29%/26% group B), whereas among older children, pellets tasted worse than tablets (40%/2%). No participants reported problems with storage/transportation for pellets (0%/0%) unlike syrups (23%/13%).

CONCLUSIONS

For children <4 years, pellets were more acceptable at week 12 but not week 48. Clinic differences could reflect bias among health-care workers for different formulations. Pellets taste similar to syrup, are easier to store and transport than syrup and represent an alternative formulation for young children unable to swallow tablets; improvements in taste and support for health-care workers may help sustain acceptability.

Role of Natural Autoantibodies in Ugandans With Rheumatic Heart Disease and HIV

BACKGROUND

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) and HIV are prevalent diseases in sub-Saharan Africa, but little is known about their potential interrelationships. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence of protective natural autoantibodies among patients with RHD in Uganda, and to determine whether the levels of these autoantibodies are affected by HIV status.

METHODS

Participants were grouped according to RHD and HIV status. The three control groups (RHD - HIV -, RHD - HIV +, RHD + HIV -) were age-matched to the RHD + HIV + participants. All participants underwent HIV testing and echocardiography to evaluate for RHD. Natural autoantibody levels reactive with phosphorylcholine (PC) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured.

FINDINGS

We enrolled 220 participants; 21 with both RHD and HIV. Ages ranged from 10 to 60 years, with female predominance (144/220, 65%). After adjusting for age and gender, HIV infection and RHD were each associated with low IgM anti-PC (HIV: p < 0.0001 and RHD: p = 0.01). A distinct HIV ∗ RHD interaction was identified (p = 0.045) with increased IgG anti-MDA levels in HIV infected subjects without RHD, whereas IgG anti-MDA levels were decreased in HIV infected subjects with RHD.

INTERPRETATION

We found that HIV and RHD are associated with alterations in natural autoantibody responses previously linked to an increased risk for atherosclerosis and autoimmune inflammatory disease.

Abacavir, zidovudine, or stavudine as paediatric tablets for African HIV-infected children (CHAPAS-3): an open-label, parallel-group, randomised controlled trial

Background

WHO 2013 guidelines recommend universal treatment for HIV-infected children younger than 5 years. No paediatric trials have compared nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) in first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Africa, where most HIV-infected children live. We aimed to compare stavudine, zidovudine, or abacavir as dual or triple fixed-dose-combination paediatric tablets with lamivudine and nevirapine or efavirenz.

Methods

In this open-label, parallel-group, randomised trial (CHAPAS-3), we enrolled children from one centre in Zambia and three in Uganda who were previously untreated (ART naive) or on stavudine for more than 2 years with viral load less than 50 copies per mL (ART experienced). Computer-generated randomisation tables were incorporated securely within the database. The primary endpoint was grade 2–4 clinical or grade 3/4 laboratory adverse events. Analysis was intention to treat. This trial is registered with the ISRCTN Registry number, 69078957.

Findings

Between Nov 8, 2010, and Dec 28, 2011, 480 children were randomised: 156 to stavudine, 159 to zidovudine, and 165 to abacavir. After two were excluded due to randomisation error, 156 children were analysed in the stavudine group, 158 in the zidovudine group, and 164 in the abacavir group, and followed for median 2·3 years (5% lost to follow-up). 365 (76%) were ART naive (median age 2·6 years vs 6·2 years in ART experienced). 917 grade 2–4 clinical or grade 3/4 laboratory adverse events (835 clinical [634 grade 2]; 40 laboratory) occurred in 104 (67%) children on stavudine, 103 (65%) on zidovudine, and 105 (64%), on abacavir (p=0·63; zidovudine vs stavudine: hazard ratio [HR] 0·99 [95% CI 0·75–1·29]; abacavir vs stavudine: HR 0·88 [0·67–1·15]). At 48 weeks, 98 (85%), 81 (80%) and 95 (81%) ART-naive children in the stavudine, zidovudine, and abacavir groups, respectively, had viral load less than 400 copies per mL (p=0·58); most ART-experienced children maintained suppression (p=1·00).

Interpretation

All NRTIs had low toxicity and good clinical, immunological, and virological responses. Clinical and subclinical lipodystrophy was not noted in those younger than 5 years and anaemia was no more frequent with zidovudine than with the other drugs. Absence of hypersensitivity reactions, superior resistance profile and once-daily dosing favours abacavir for African children, supporting WHO 2013 guidelines.

Funding

European Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership.

The utility of handheld echocardiography for early rheumatic heart disease diagnosis: a field study

AIMS

The World Heart Federation (WHF) guidelines for rheumatic heart disease (RHD) are designed for a standard portable echocardiography (STAND) machine. A recent study in a tertiary care centre demonstrated that they also had good sensitivity and specificity when modified for use with handheld echocardiography (HAND). Our study aimed to evaluate the performance of HAND for early RHD diagnosis in the setting of a large-scale field screening.

METHODS AND RESULTS

STAND was performed in 4773 children in Gulu, Uganda, with 10% randomly assigned to also undergo HAND. Additionally, any child with mitral or aortic regurgitation also underwent HAND. Studies were performed by experienced echocardiographers and blindly reviewed by cardiologists using 2012 WHF criteria, which were modified slightly for HAND--due to the lack of spectral Doppler capability. Paired echocardiograms were performed in 1420 children (mean age 10.8 and 53% female), resulting in 1234 children who were normal, 133 who met criteria for borderline RHD, 47 who met criteria for definite RHD, and 6 who had other diagnoses. HAND had good sensitivity and specificity for RHD detection (78.9 and 87.2%, respectively), but was most sensitive for definite RHD (97.9%). Inter- and intra-reviewer agreement ranged between 66-83 and 71.4-94.1%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

HAND has good sensitivity and specificity for diagnosis of early RHD, performing best for definite RHD. Protocols for RHD detection utilizing HAND will need to include confirmation by STAND to avoid over-diagnosis. Strategies that evaluate simplified screening protocols and training of non-physicians hold promise for more wide spread deployment of HAND-based protocols.

Handheld echocardiography versus auscultation for detection of rheumatic heart disease

BACKGROUND

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) remains a major public health concern in developing countries, and routine screening has the potential to improve outcomes. Standard portable echocardiography (STAND) is far more sensitive than auscultation for the detection of RHD but remains cost-prohibitive in resource-limited settings. Handheld echocardiography (HAND) is a lower-cost alternative. The purpose of this study was to assess the incremental value of HAND over auscultation to identify RHD.

METHODS

RHD screening was completed for schoolchildren in Gulu, Uganda, by using STAND performed by experienced echocardiographers. Any child with mitral or aortic regurgitation or stenosis plus a randomly selected group of children with normal STAND findings underwent HAND and auscultation. STAND and HAND studies were interpreted by 6 experienced cardiologists using the 2012 World Heart Federation criteria. Sensitivity and specificity of HAND and auscultation for the detection of RHD and pathologic mitral or aortic regurgitation were calculated by using STAND as the gold standard.

RESULTS

Of 4773 children who underwent screening with STAND, a subgroup of 1317 children underwent HAND and auscultation. Auscultation had uniformly poor sensitivity for the detection of RHD or valve disease. Sensitivity was significantly improved by using HAND compared with auscultation for the detection of definite RHD (97.8% vs 22.2%), borderline or definite RHD (78.4% vs 16.4%), and pathologic aortic insufficiency (81.8% vs 13.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Auscultation alone is a poor screening test for RHD. HAND significantly improves detection of RHD and may be a cost-effective screening strategy for RHD in resource-limited settings.

Antiretroviral drug resistance profiles and response to second-line therapy among HIV type 1-infected Ugandan children

We sought to determine the pattern of resistance-associated mutations (RAMs) among HIV-1-infected children failing first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) and ascertain their response to second-line regimens in 48 weeks of follow-up. The design involved a cohort study within an HIV care program. We studied records of 142 children on ART with virological failure to first-line ART and switched to second-line ART with prior genotypic resistance testing. The pattern of RAMs was determined in frequency runs and the factors associated with accumulation of≥3 thymidine analogue mutations (TAMs) and K103N were determined using multivariate logistic models. Changes in weight, height, CD4, and viral load at weeks 24 and 48 after switch to second-line therapy were determined using descriptive statistics. The children were mean age 10.9±4.6 years and 55.6% were male. The commonest nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) RAM was M184V in 129/142 (90.8%) children. TAMs,≥3 TAMs, 69 insertion complex, K65R/N, and Q151M were observed in 43.0%, 10.6%, 18.3%, 2.8%, and 2.1% of the children, respectively. The commonest nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) RAM was K103N in 72/142 (50.7%) children. The starting ART regimen was associated with accumulation of both≥3 TAMs (p=0.046) and K103N (p<0.0001), while a history of poor adherence was associated with K103N accumulation (p=0.0388). After 24 weeks and 48 weeks of follow-up on lopinavir-ritonavir based second-line ART, 86/108 (79.6%) and 84.5% (87/103) of the children had viral loads<400 copies/ml, respectively. The mean CD4 absolute count increased by 173 cells/μl and 267cells/μl at weeks 24 and 48, respectively. Increments were also observed in mean weight (1.6 kg and 4.3 kg) and height (1.8 cm and 5.8 cm) at weeks 24 and 48, respectively. Multiple RAMs were observed among HIV-1-infected children with virological failure on first-line ART with M184V and K103N most frequent. The children responded favorably to boosted PI-based second-line ART.

Severe neurological sequelae and behaviour problems after cerebral malaria in Ugandan children

Background

Cerebral malaria is the most severe neurological complication of falciparum malaria and a leading cause of death and neuro-disability in sub-Saharan Africa. This study aimed to describe functional deficits and behaviour problems in children who survived cerebral malaria with severe neurological sequelae and identify patterns of brain injury.

Findings

Records of children attending a specialist child neurology clinic in Uganda with severe neurological sequelae following cerebral malaria between January 2007 and December 2008 were examined to describe deficits in gross motor function, speech, vision and hearing, behaviour problems or epilepsy. Deficits were classified according to the time of development and whether their distribution suggested a focal or generalized injury. Any resolution during the observation period was also documented.

Thirty children with probable exposure to cerebral malaria attended the clinic. Referral information was inadequate to exclude other diagnoses in 7 children and these were excluded. In the remaining 23 patients, the commonest severe deficits were spastic motor weakness (14), loss of speech (14), hearing deficit (9), behaviour problems (11), epilepsy (12), blindness (12) and severe cognitive impairment (9). Behaviour problems included hyperactivity, impulsiveness and inattentiveness as in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorders with aggressive, self injurious or destructive behaviour. Two patterns were observed; a) immediate onset deficits present on discharge and b) late onset deficits. Some deficits e.g. blindness, resolved within 6 months while others e.g. speech, showed little improvement over the 6-months follow-up.

Conclusions

In addition to previously described neurological and cognitive sequelae, severe behaviour problems may follow cerebral malaria in children. The observed differences in patterns of sequelae may be due to different pathogenic mechanisms, brain regions affected or extent of injury. Cerebral malaria may be used as a new model to study the pathogenesis of ADHD.