An androgen response element in a far upstream enhancer region is essential for high, androgen-regulated activity of the prostate-specific antigen promoter

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is expressed at a high level in the luminal epithelial cells of the prostate and is absent or expressed at very low levels in other tissues. PSA expression can be regulated by androgens. Previously, two functional androgen-response elements were identified in the proximal promoter of the PSA gene. To detect additional, more distal control elements, DNasel-hypersensitive sites (DHSs) upstream of the PSA gene were mapped in chromatin from the prostate-derived cell line LNCaP grown in the presence and absence of the synthetic androgen R1881. In a region 4.8 to 3.8 kb upstream of the transcription start site of the PSA gene, a cluster of three DHSs was detected. The middle DNAseI-hypersensitive site (DHSII, at approximately -4.2 kb) showed strong androgen responsiveness in LNCaP cells and was absent in chromatin from HeLa cells. Further analysis of the region encompassing DHSII provided evidence for the presence of a complex, androgen-responsive and cell-specific enhancer. In transient transfected LNCaP cells, PSA promoter constructs containing this upstream enhancer region showed approximately 3000-fold higher activity in the presence than in the absence of R1881. The core region of the enhancer could be mapped within a 440-bp fragment. The enhancer showed synergistic cooperation with the proximal PSA promoter and was found to be composed of at least three separate regulatory regions. In the center, a functionally active, high-affinity androgen receptor binding site (GGAACATATTGTATC) could be identified. Mutation of this element almost completely abolished PSA promoter activity. Transfection experiments in prostate and nonprostate cell lines showed largely LNCaP cell specificity of the upstream enhancer region, although some activity was found in the T47D mammary tumor cell line.

Two different, overlapping pathways of transcription initiation are active on the TATA-less human androgen receptor promoter. The role of Sp1

In this study, the minimal promoter requirements of the TATA-less human androgen receptor (hAR) gene promoter are described. The hAR promoter is characterized by a short GC-box (-59/-32) and a long homopurine stretch (-117/-60). Two major transcription initiation sites, AR transcription initiation site I (AR-TIS I, (+1/2/3)) and AR transcription initiation site II (AR-TIS II, (+12/13)) are located in a 13-base pair region (Faber, P. W., van Rooij, H. C. J., van der Korput, J. A. G. M., Baarends, W. M., Brinkmann, A. O., Grootegoed, J. A., and Trapman, J. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 10743-10749). Transient transfection of COS cells with hAR promoter deletion and mutant constructs, followed by RNA isolation and S1 nuclease protection analysis showed that the process of transcription initiation through AR-TIS I and AR-TIS II is regulated by different promoter sequences. The GC-box directed initiation from AR-TIS II but did not affect AR-TIS I utilization, which is dependent upon sequences between positions -5 and +57. Band shift analysis identified the transcription factor Sp1 as the protein interacting with the GC-box. A single Sp1 binding sequence was found to be present in the GC-box. Footprint analysis confirmed the interaction of Sp1 with this sequence. The differential initiation through AR-TIS I and AR-TIS II was substantiated by the introduction of point mutations in the Sp1 binding sequence: only mutations that specifically abolished Sp1 binding interfered with AR-TIS II utilization, but all mutations left AR-TIS I initiation intact.

Substitution of aspartic acid-686 by histidine or asparagine in the human androgen receptor leads to a functionally inactive protein with altered hormone-binding characteristics

We have identified two different single nucleotide alterations in codon 686 (GAC; aspartic acid) in exon 4 of the human androgen receptor gene in three unrelated families with the complete form of androgen insensitivity. One mutation (G----C) results in an aspartic acid----histidine substitution (with 15-20% of wild-type androgen-binding capacity), whereas the other mutation (G----A) leads to an aspartic acid----asparagine substitution (with normal androgen-binding capacity, but a rapidly dissociating ligand-receptor complex). The mutations eliminate a Hinfl restriction site. Screening for the loss of the Hinfl site in both families with the Asp----Asn mutation resulted in the recognition of heterozygous carriers in successive generations of each. Both mutant androgen receptors were generated in vitro and transiently expressed in COS and HeLa cells. The receptor proteins produced had the same altered binding characteristics as those measured in fibroblasts from the affected subjects. R1881-activated transcription of a GRE-tk-CAT reporter gene construct was strongly diminished by both mutant receptors and was only partially restored using a 100-fold higher concentration of ligand compared with wild-type receptor. Thus, aspartic acid-686 appears essential for normal androgen receptor function. Substitution of this amino acid residue, by either histidine or asparagine, results in androgen insensitivity and lack of androgen-dependent male sexual differentiation.

The mouse androgen receptor. Functional analysis of the protein and characterization of the gene

Screening a mouse genomic DNA library with human androgen-receptor (hAR) cDNA probes resulted in the isolation and characterization of eight genomic fragments that contain the eight exons of the mouse androgen-receptor (mAR) gene. On the basis of similarity to the hAR gene, the nucleotide sequences of the protein-coding parts of the exons as well as the sequences of the intron/exon boundaries were determined. An open reading frame (ORF) of 2697 nucleotides, which can encode an 899-amino-acid protein, could be predicted. The structure of the mAR ORF was confirmed by sequence analysis of mAR cDNA fragments, which were obtained by PCR amplification of mouse testis cDNA, using mAR specific primers. A eukaryotic mAR expression vector was constructed and mAR was transiently expressed in COS-1 cells. The expressed protein was shown by Western blotting to be identical in size with the native mAR. Co-transfection of HeLa cells with the mAR expression plasmid and an androgen-responsive chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) reporter-gene construct showed mAR to be able to trans-activate the androgen-responsive promoter in a ligand-dependent manner. Transcription-initiation sites of the mAR gene were identified by S1-nuclease protection experiments, and the functional activity of the promoter region was determined by transient expression of mAR promoter-CAT-reporter-gene constructs in HeLa cells. Structural analysis revealed the promoter of the mAR gene to be devoid of TATA/CCAAT elements. In addition, the promoter region is not remarkably (G + C)-rich. Potential promoter elements consist of a consensus Sp1 binding sequence and a homopurine stretch. The polyadenylation sites of mAR mRNA were identified by sequence similarity to the corresponding sites in the hAR mRNA.

Characterization of the human androgen receptor transcription unit

A full length human androgen receptor (hAR) cDNA was constructed from cDNA and genomic clones. Structurally the 10.6-kilobase (kb) hAR cDNA consists of a long 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR, 1.1 kb), a previously described open reading frame (ORF, 2.7 kb) (Trapman, J., Klaassen, P., Kuiper, G. G. J. M., van der Korput, J. A. G. M., Faber, P. W., van Rooij, H. C. J., Geurts van Kessel, A., Voorhorst, M. M., Mulder, E., and Brinkmann, A. O. (1988) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 153, 241-248; Faber, P. W., Kuiper, G. G. J. M., van Rooij, H. C. J., van der Korput, J. A. G. M., Brinkmann, A. O., and Trapman, J. (1989) Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 61, 257-262), and a very long 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR, 6.8 kb). The complete 5'- and 3'-UTRs were found to be encoded by the previously reported first and eight protein coding exons of the hAR gene, respectively (Kuiper, G. G. J. M., Faber, P. W., van Rooij, H. C. J., van der Korput, J. A. G. M., Ris-Stalpers, C., Klaassen, P., Trapman, J., and Brinkmann, A. O. (1989) J. Mol. Endocrinol. 2, R1-R4). Two major sites of transcription initiation were identified in a 13-base pair region. DNA fragments spanning these transcription initiation sites conferred promoter activity upon a promoterless chloramphenicol acetyltransferase reporter gene construct. Two equally effective, functional polyadenylation signals (ATTAAA and CATAAA) at a mutual distance of 221 base pairs were detected. The ATTAAA hexamer sequence gave rise to multiple sites of poly(A) addition, whereas only one position was used following the CATAAA hexamer. In LNCaP prostatic carcinoma cells an alternatively spliced hAR mRNA species was identified which lacks 3 kb of the 3'-UTR.

Androgen receptor abnormalities

The human androgen receptor is a member of the superfamily of steroid hormone receptors. Proper functioning of this protein is a prerequisite for normal male sexual differentiation and development. The cloning of the human androgen receptor cDNA and the elucidation of the genomic organization of the corresponding gene has enabled us to study androgen receptors in subjects with the clinical manifestation of androgen insensitivity and in a human prostate carcinoma cell line (LNCaP). Using PCR amplification, subcloning and sequencing of exons 2-8, we identified a G----T mutation in the androgen receptor gene of a subject with the complete form of androgen insensitivity, which inactivates the splice donor site at the exon 4/intron 4 boundary. This mutation causes the activation of a cryptic splice donor site in exon 4, which results in the deletion of 41 amino acids from the steroid binding domain. In two other independently arising cases we identified two different nucleotide alterations in codon 686 (GAC; aspartic acid) located in exon 4. One mutation (G----C) results in an aspartic acid----histidine substitution (with negligible androgen binding), whereas the other mutation (G----A) leads to an aspartic acid----asparagine substitution (normal androgen binding, but a rapidly dissociating androgen receptor complex). Sequence analysis of the androgen receptor in human LNCaP-cells (lymph node carcinoma of the prostate) revealed a point mutation (A----G) in codon 868 in exon 8 resulting in the substitution of threonine by alanine. This mutation is the cause of the altered steroid binding specificity of the LNCaP-cell androgen receptor. The functional consequences of the observed mutations with respect to protein expression, specific ligand binding and transcriptional activation, were established after transient expression of the mutant receptors in COS and HeLa cells. These findings illustrate that functional errors in the human androgen receptor have an enormous impact on phenotype and fertility.

A mutation in the ligand binding domain of the androgen receptor of human LNCaP cells affects steroid binding characteristics and response to anti-androgens

LNCaP prostate tumor cells contain an abnormal androgen receptor system. Progestagens, estradiol and anti-androgens can compete with androgens for binding to the androgen receptor and can stimulate both cell growth and excretion of prostate specific acid phosphatase. We have discovered in the LNCaP androgen receptor a single point mutation changing the sense of codon 868 (Thr to Ala) in the ligand binding domain. Expression vectors containing the normal or mutated androgen receptor sequence were transfected into COS or Hela cells. Androgens, progestagens, estrogens and anti-androgens bind the mutated androgen receptor protein and activate the expression of an androgen-regulated reporter gene construct (GRE-tk-CAT). The mutation therefore influences both binding and the induction of gene expression by different steroids and antisteroids.

Aberrant splicing of androgen receptor mRNA results in synthesis of a nonfunctional receptor protein in a patient with androgen insensitivity

Androgen insensitivity is a disorder in which the correct androgen response in an androgen target cell is impaired. The clinical symptoms of this X chromosome-linked syndrome are presumed to be caused by mutations in the androgen receptor gene. We report a G----T mutation in the splice donor site of intron 4 of the androgen receptor gene of a 46,XY subject lacking detectable androgen binding to the receptor and with the complete form of androgen insensitivity. This point mutation completely abolishes normal RNA splicing at the exon 4/intron 4 boundary and results in the activation of a cryptic splice donor site in exon 4, which leads to the deletion of 123 nucleotides from the mRNA. Translation of the mutant mRNA results in an androgen receptor protein approximately 5 kDa smaller than the wild type. This mutated androgen receptor protein was unable to bind androgens and unable to activate transcription of an androgen-regulated reporter gene construct. This mutation in the human androgen receptor gene demonstrates the importance of an intact steroid-binding domain for proper androgen receptor functioning in vivo.

Unusual specificity of the androgen receptor in the human prostate tumor cell line LNCaP: high affinity for progestagenic and estrogenic steroids

LNCaP tumor cells, derived from a metastatic lesion of a human prostatic carcinoma, are androgen-sensitive in cell culture. Although increase in growth rate is observed with low doses of progestagens or estradiol, these cells contain exclusively androgen receptors. In the present study the binding affinity of different ligands for both non-DNA- and DNA-binding (transformed) forms of the androgen receptor were analyzed. The cytosolic (non-transformed) form of the receptor displayed an abnormal high affinity for progestagens and estradiol when compared with the cytosolic androgen receptor from other sources. Subsequently the non-transformed forms of the androgen receptor obtained from LNCaP cell nuclei was studied. A high binding affinity was found not only for dihydrotestosterone, but also for progesterone and the synthetic progestagen R5020 (relative binding affinity 42% and 10% of dihydrotestosterone). The binding characteristics of the transformed androgen receptor were examined in intact cells at 37 degrees C. LNCaP cells were compared in this respect with COS cells containing the cloned human androgen receptor, normal human skin fibroblasts and PC3 (prostate) and NHIK (cervix) human tumor cell lines. The affinity of the transformed androgen receptors for the progestagen R5020 in LNCaP cells was significantly higher than in the other cell systems, although the differences were less pronounced than for the non-transformed receptor form.

IN CONCLUSION

the LNCaP tumor cells contain an androgen receptor with an abnormal binding site. This might be due to a mutation and/or a post-transcriptional effect.

Enhancement and suppression of DTH reactivity to Rauscher murine leukaemia virus induced tumour cell lines

Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) to Rauscher murine leukaemia virus (R-MuLV) encoded or induced determinants was induced in mice by three syngeneic R-MuLV-induced tumour cell lines, i.e. a myeloid tumour, RMB-1, an erythroid tumour, RED-1, and a lymphoid tumour, RLD-1. DTH to subcutaneously (s.c.) administered RMB-1 cells appeared on day 4, with a maximum DTH response on day 6 or 7. The induction of DTH could be prevented by intravenous (i.v.) pre-immunisation with R-MuLV-induced tumour cells several days before the s.c. immunisation. The three R-MuLV-induced tumour cell lines showed cross-reactivity in the DTH assay, whereas no cross-reactivity was found with syngeneic WEHI-3 cells. This indicates that the three R-MuLV-induced tumour cell lines share a virally encoded or induced antigenic determinant, which activates T-cells. When the RMB-1 cells used for immunisation had been cultured in medium supplemented with interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), the subsequent DTH response was increased. This coincided with an increased expression of the R-MuLV-specific antigenic determinants on RMB-1 cells as demonstrated by Scatchard analysis. Furthermore, IFN-gamma increased the MHC class I antigen expression on RMB-1 cells, whereas the class II antigen expression remained undetectable.

Structural organization of the human androgen receptor gene

The complete coding region of the human androgen receptor gene has been isolated from a genomic library. The information for the androgen receptor was found to be divided over eight exons and the total length of the gene exceeded 90 kb. The sequence encoding the N-terminal region is present in one large exon. The two putative DNA-binding fingers are encoded separately by two small exons. The information for the hormone-binding domain is split over five exons. Positions of introns are identical to those reported for the chicken progesterone receptor and the human oestrogen receptor genes. Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA with various specific probes reveal that the human androgen receptor is encoded by a single-copy gene.

Structure and function of the androgen receptor

The androgen receptor in several species (human, rat, calf) is a monomeric protein with a molecular mass of 100-110 kDa. The steroid binding domain is confined to a region of 30 kDa, while the DNA-binding domain has the size of approx. 10 kDa. A 40 kDa fragment containing both the DNA and steroid binding domain displayed a higher DNA binding activity than did the intact 100 kDa molecule. cDNA encoding the major part of the human androgen receptor was isolated. The cDNA contains an open reading frame of 2,277 bp but still lacks part of the 5'-coding sequence. Homology with the progesterone and glucocorticoid receptor was about 80% in the DNA binding domain and 50% in the steroid binding domain. The present data provide evidence that the androgen receptor belongs to the superfamily of ligand responsive transcriptional regulators and consists of three distinct domains each with a specialized function.

The N-terminal domain of the human androgen receptor is encoded by one, large exon

Using specific cDNA hybridization probes, the first coding exon of the human androgen receptor gene was isolated from a genomic library. The exon contained an open reading frame of 1586 bp, encoding an androgen receptor amino-terminal region of 529 amino acids. The deduced amino acid sequence was characterized by the presence of several poly-amino acid stretches of which the long poly-glycine stretch (16 residues) and the poly-glutamine stretch (20 residues) were most prominent. Androgen receptor cDNAs from different sources contained information for poly-glycine stretches of variable size (23 and 27 residues, respectively). The androgen receptor amino-terminal domain was found to be hydrophilic and have a net negative charge. Combined with the previously described, partially overlapping cDNA clone 7A2M27 (Trapman et al. (1988) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 153, 241-248), the complete human androgen receptor was deduced to have a size of 910 amino acids.

The human androgen receptor: domain structure, genomic organization and regulation of expression

The domain structure and the genomic organization of the human androgen receptor (hAR) has been studied after molecular cloning and characterization of cDNA and genomic DNA encoding the hAR. The cDNA sequence reveals an open reading frame of 2751 nucleotides encoding a protein of 917 amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 98,845 D. The N-terminal region of the hAR is characterized by a high content of acidic amino acid residues and by several homopolymeric amino acid stretches. The DNA-binding domain showed a high homology with the DNA-binding domain of the human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR) and the human progesterone receptor (hPR). The predominantly hydrophobic steroid binding domain of the hAR is 50-55% homologous with the ligand binding domains of the hGR and hPR. Transient expression of recombinant AR cDNA in COS-cells resulted in the production of a 110 kDa protein with the expected binding specificity of androgen receptors. Co-transfection with a reporter-gene construct [CAT(chloramphenicol acetyl transferase) under direction of the androgen regulated MMTV-promoter] showed that the protein is functionally active with respect to transcription regulation. In the LNCaP prostate carcinoma cell line two major (11 and 8 kb) and one minor (4.7 kb) mRNA species can be found which can be down-regulated by androgens. The hAR protein coding region was shown to be divided over eight exons with an organization similar to that of the progesterone and oestrogen receptor. The sequence encoding the N-terminal domain was found in one large exon. The two DNA-binding fingers were encoded by two small exons; the information for the androgen-binding domain was found to be distributed over five exons. Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA revealed that the hAR is encoded by one single gene, which is situated on the X-chromosome.

Cloning, structure and expression of a cDNA encoding the human androgen receptor

A cDNA clone has been isolated from a library prepared of mRNA of human breast cancer T47D cells with an oligonucleotide probe homologous to part of the region encoding the DNA-binding domain of steroid receptors. The clone has a size of 1505 bp and sequence analysis revealed an open reading frame of 1356 bp. The deduced amino acid sequence displays two highly conserved regions identified as the putative DNA-binding and hormone binding domains respectively of steroid receptors. Expression of this cDNA clone in COS cells produces a nuclear protein with all the binding characteristics of the human androgen receptor (hAR). The gene encoding the cDNA is assigned to the human X-chromosome. High levels of three hybridizing mRNA species of 11, 8.5 and 4.7 kb respectively are found in the human prostate cancer cell line (LNCaP), which contains elevated levels of hAR. The present data provide evidence that we have isolated a cDNA that encodes a major part of the human androgen receptor.

Hormonal control of glycogenolysis in parenchymal liver cells by Kupffer and endothelial liver cells

Conditioned media of isolated Kupffer and endothelial liver cells were added to incubations of parenchymal liver cells, in order to test whether secretory products of Kupffer and endothelial liver cells could influence parenchymal liver cell metabolism. With Kupffer cell medium an average stimulation of glucose production by parenchymal liver cells of 140% was obtained, while endothelial liver cell medium stimulated with an average of 127%. The separation of the secretory products of Kupffer and endothelial liver cells in a low and a high molecular weight fraction indicated that the active factor(s) had a low molecular weight. Media, obtained from aspirin-pretreated Kupffer and endothelial liver cells, had no effect on the glucose production by parenchymal liver cells. Because aspirin blocks prostaglandin synthesis, it was tested if prostaglandins could be responsible for the effect of media on parenchymal liver cells. It was found that prostaglandin (PG) E1, E2, and D2 all stimulated the glucose production by parenchymal liver cells, PGD2 being the most potent. Kupffer and endothelial liver cell media as well as prostaglandins E1, E2, and D2 stimulated the activity of phosphorylase, the regulatory enzyme in glycogenolysis. The data indicate that prostaglandins, present in media from Kupffer and endothelial liver cells, may stimulate glycogenolysis in parenchymal liver cells. This implies that products of Kupffer and endothelial liver cells may play a role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis by the liver.

Mechanism of glucagon stimulation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase in rat hepatocytes. Involvement of a low-Mr activator

Isolated rat hepatocytes were incubated in the absence or presence of glucagon and the activity of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase was measured in cell extracts. After glucagon treatment the Vmax was increased (20-50%) whereas the Km remained unchanged. The stimulation was complete at 5 min after addition of glucagon. The glucagon concentration needed for maximal stimulation was 10(-9) M. After gel filtration the fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase activity in extracts of glucagon-treated cells was lowered to the control level. The effect of glucagon could not be completely mimicked by dibutyryl cAMP. The data indicate that in addition to the possible regulatory role of enzyme phosphorylation, a positive effector is involved in the stimulation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase activity by glucagon.