Physical Education Teachers' Perceived Effectiveness in Association with Student Attendance, Teacher Adaptability, External Educational Supports, and Teaching Format During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Spring 2020 pandemic-control policies included an abrupt shift to remote teaching, which may have affected physical education (PE) teachers' perceived effectiveness. This study examined K-12 PE teachers' perceived effectiveness in association with student attendance, teacher adaptability, PE supports, teaching format (in-person, remote synchronous, remote asynchronous, etc.), and teacher- and school-level demographics at three time points (pre-pandemic 2019-early 2020, Spring 2020, 2020-2021 school year). An electronic survey was developed by an expert panel and distributed to U.S. public school PE teachers (convenience sampling via school health-related organizations). For analyses, teacher perceived effectiveness was dichotomized (very/extremely effective= "1"; not at all/slightly/moderately effective= "0"). Logistic regression models assessed associations between perceived effectiveness and independent variables (student attendance, teacher adaptability, PE supports, teaching format, and demographic variables) at each time point. Respondents (n=134; M age=46) were mostly female (62%), general PE teachers (82%, versus adapted), had a graduate degree (66%), had >11 years of teaching experience (63%), and from 26 states. Perception of being very/extremely effective was highest pre-pandemic 2019-early 2020 (93%), lowest in Spring 2020 (12%), and recovered somewhat in 2020-2021 (45%). During the 2020-2021 school year, teachers had greater odds of perceiving they were more effective if they reported having higher student attendance (OR 1.06 [CI:1.02-1.09], p>.001) and higher adaptability (OR 1.22 [CI: 1.09-1.37], p>.001), adjusting for gender, education level, years of experience, grade level taught, and Title I status. Professional development opportunities are needed for remote teaching of PE to enhance teachers' adaptability and perceived effectiveness during potential future school closures.

"On a Positive Path": School Superintendents' Perceptions of and Experiences With Local School Wellness Policy Implementation and Evaluation

Renewed federal requirements for local school wellness policies highlighted the continued importance of supporting school districts as they implement and evaluate wellness initiatives. Superintendents-as school district leaders-play a critical role in wellness policy implementation and evaluation; however, to our knowledge, no studies examine their perspectives or experiences with the most recent federal rule or wellness initiatives more broadly. This study qualitatively examined superintendents' perspectives, experiences, and recommendations with wellness policy implementation and evaluation. Focus groups (n = 39) and follow-up interviews (n = 14 of the focus group participants) were conducted with superintendents from March to July 2017. Coders organized and coded transcript data using Atlas.ti, Version 8 to facilitate thematic analysis. Superintendents had overall positive perceptions of wellness policies and reported that implementation improved over time. Most described wellness approaches beyond typical wellness policy domains, including social-emotional learning and staff wellness. Evaluation of wellness policies was noted to be a challenge, and superintendents requested more tools and resources, as well as opportunities to learn from "best practices." Increased local and state accountability were recommended to facilitate motivation for other superintendents to engage with wellness. This study adds to the literature on a critical stakeholder in the school wellness field. Advocates and technical assistance providers can apply superintendents' recommendations to engage more district leaders in these initiatives.

Secular Changes in Physical Education Attendance Among U.S. High School Students, 1991-2015

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine changes in school-based physical education (PE) attendance over time among nationally representative samples of U.S. high school students and how changes in PE attendance have varied across demographic subgroups.

METHOD

Student demographic information and PE attendance data were obtained from 13 biennial cycles (1991-2015) of the national Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Physical education variables derived from YRBS data included PE attendance, daily PE, average PE days/week, and PE frequency. Logistic regression models examined trends in PE attendance, daily PE, and PE frequency for the overall sample and demographic subgroups. Linear regression models examined trends in average PE days/week in the overall sample only.

RESULTS

Overall, there was no significant change in the percentage of students reporting PE attendance during 1991 to 2015. However, daily PE and average PE days/week declined significantly from 1991 to 1995 (41.6% to 25.4% and 4.64 days to 3.64 days, respectively) and then remained stable through 2015 (29.8% and 4.11 days, respectively). The percentage of students reporting a PE frequency of 3 days per week increased significantly from 1991 to 1995 (1.5% to 19.0%) before stabilizing through 2015 (9.1%). Trends across demographic subgroups revealed notable differences in PE attendance.

CONCLUSIONS

Study findings showed that U.S. schools have not substantially reduced PE amounts in recent years. Still, the prevalence of PE attendance among U.S. high school students is well below recommendations. For PE to contribute to increased adolescent compliance with national physical activity guidelines, significant policy actions are needed to improve PE access for all students.

Insights on the Intersection of Health Equity and School Nutrition Policy Implementation: An Exploratory Qualitative Secondary Analysis

BACKGROUND

Recent federal policies aimed to ensure that all children have equitable access to healthy school nutrition environments. However, historically, disparities have persisted in the quality of school nutrition environments across geographic and socioeconomic groups. There is limited literature addressing if and how recent efforts to reform the school nutrition environment have influenced such disparities. The main objective of this study was to explore stakeholders' insights on how school nutrition reform intersected with issues of inequity.

METHOD

Qualitative secondary analysis (QSA) offers a unique method to examine existing data with a related but distinct inquiry. This QSA analyzed three primary studies, including stakeholder interviews and focus group data with school professionals and students (total 60 transcripts). Two trained analysts iteratively coded all transcripts in Atlas.ti Version 7 and followed principles of constant comparative analysis. Measures to enhance "trustworthiness" were built into the primary studies and the QSA.

RESULTS

Broadly, stakeholders' complex insights about the school food environments' ability to compensate for healthy dietary options and "whole child" education that were perceived to be lacking in home environments. Despite the majority of respondents' positive perceptions of reforms, they also noted the challenges of addressing disparities due to family home environments and complex socioeconomic conditions. Overall, respondents reported that school food reform and nutrition education had the potential for long-term impacts on students' health, including the potential to improve disparities through enhanced academic achievement for disadvantaged populations.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

QSA allowed for inquiry into frontline stakeholders' understandings of how school nutrition reform may affect health inequities. Qualitative methods allowed for the examination of complex motivations and perspectives involved in policy implementation. Understanding frontline stakeholders' perspectives is key to advance school nutrition reform in a sustainable manner, especially in light of the federal local school wellness policy final rule.

Successes and Challenges in School Meal Reform: Qualitative Insights From Food Service Directors

BACKGROUND

The Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 (HHFKA) directed the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) to revise school meal standards to increase healthy food offerings. A critical stakeholder in the implementation of standards is Food Service Directors (FSDs). We sought to examine FSDs' perspectives on revised school meal standards to gain insight into successful implementation strategies.

METHODS

Semistructured interviews were conducted with FSDs (N = 9) from high schools that had achieved HealthierUS Schools Challenge: Smarter Lunchrooms (HUSSC: SL) status. Qualitative interview data were team coded in Atlas.ti v7 and analyzed with principles of constant comparative analysis.

RESULTS

FSDs reported overall positive perceptions of the revised school meal standards and its potential impacts, as well as improved fruit and vegetable consumption, despite initial challenges with plate waste, procurement of whole grain-rich products, and fast paced sodium targets. Implementation was described as complex, ongoing processes; with time and in-service trainings, student acceptance to these changes improved.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings are directly relevant to future reauthorization of the Child Nutrition Act and to revisions to the implementation time line for the federal school meal standards related to sodium, whole grains, and flavored milk. Insights into FSDs' strategies suggest that more time and targeted technical assistance at federal, state, and local levels is warranted.

Common state mechanisms regulating tribal tobacco taxation and sales, the USA, 2015

Background

Native American tribes, as sovereign nations, are exempt from state tobacco excise taxation, and self-govern on-reservation activity in the USA. Under Federal law, state excise taxes are owed by non-members purchasing tobacco on tribal land, but states are limited in how they enforce or collect these taxes. This study highlights the various policy approaches that states have taken to regulate tobacco sales on tribal lands given jurisdictional challenges.

Methods

State laws (statutes, regulations and case law), Attorney General opinions, and revenue notices and rulings effective as of 1 January 2015 for all 50 states and the District of Columbia were compiled using Boolean searches in Lexis-Nexis and Westlaw. Laws were limited to those addressing taxation compacts or tobacco sales involving tribal entities. Master Settlement Agreement laws and non-codified tribal codes/compacts were excluded.

Results

Twenty of the 34 states with tribal lands address tribal tobacco sales. Fourteen states address intergovernmental compacts: 11 are tobacco specific, and suggest or require specific provisions. Fifteen states address tribal tax stamps: 2 explicitly prohibit stamping tribally sold products, 9 stamp all products, and 4 stamp some. Prepayment of excise tax is required in 12 states: 6 on all products, 4 on products in excess of quota, and 2 on products sold by non-tribal retailers. 6 states use quotas to limit tax-free tobacco available to tribes.

Conclusions

Many states with a tribal presence have no formal strategies for non-members purchasing tobacco on tribal lands. Formalising policies and harmonising tax rates may assist states in collecting tax revenue from non-tribal consumers.

USDA Snack Policy Implementation: Best Practices From the Front Lines, United States, 2013-2014

Introduction

The Smart Snacks in Schools interim final rule was promulgated by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) as authorized by the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 (PL 111–296) and implementation commenced beginning July 1, 2014; however, in the years leading up to this deadline, national studies suggested that most schools were far from meeting the USDA standards. Evidence to guide successful implementation of the standards is needed. This study examined snack policy implementation in exemplary high schools to learn best practices for implementation.

Methods

Guided by a multiple case study approach, school professionals (n = 37) from 9 high schools across 8 states were recruited to be interviewed about perceptions of school snack implementation; schools were selected using criterion sampling on the basis of the HealthierUS Schools Challenge: Smarter Lunchrooms (HUSSC: SL) database. Interview transcripts and internal documents were organized and coded in ATLAS.Ti v7; 2 researchers coded and analyzed data using a constant comparative analysis method to identify best practice themes.

Results

Best practices for snack policy implementation included incorporating the HUSSC: SL award’s comprehensive wellness approach; leveraging state laws or district policies to reinforce snack reform initiatives; creating strong internal and external partnerships; and crafting positive and strategic communications.

Conclusion

Implementation of snack policies requires evidence of successful experiences from those on the front lines. As federal, state, and local technical assistance entities work to ensure implementation of the Smart Snacks standards, these best practices provide strategies to facilitate the process.

Use of tobacco tax stamps to prevent and reduce illicit tobacco trade--United States, 2014

Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable disease and death in the United States. Increasing the unit price on tobacco products is the most effective tobacco prevention and control measure. Illicit tobacco trade (illicit trade) undermines high tobacco prices by providing tobacco users with cheaper-priced alternatives. In the United States, illicit trade primarily occurs when cigarettes are bought from states, jurisdictions, and federal reservation land with lower or no excise taxes, and sold in jurisdictions with higher taxes. Applying tax stamps to tobacco products, which provides documentation that taxes have been paid, is an important tool to combat illicit trade. Comprehensive tax stamping policy, which includes using digital, encrypted ("high-tech") stamps, applying stamps to all tobacco products, and working with tribes on stamping agreements, can further prevent and reduce illicit trade. This report describes state laws governing tax stamps on cigarettes, little cigars (cigarette-sized cigars), roll-your-own tobacco (RYOT), and tribal tobacco sales across the United States as of January 1, 2014, and assesses the extent of comprehensive tobacco tax stamping in the United States. Forty-four states (including the District of Columbia [DC]) applied traditional paper ("low-tech") tax stamps to cigarettes, whereas four authorized more effective high-tech stamps. Six states explicitly required stamps on other tobacco products (i.e., tobacco products other than cigarettes), and in approximately one third of states with tribal lands, tribes required tax stamping to address illicit purchases by nonmembers. No U.S. state had a comprehensive approach to tobacco tax stamping. Enhancing tobacco tax stamping across the country might further prevent and reduce illicit trade in the United States.

Joint use policies: are they related to adolescent behavior?

OBJECTIVE

Joint use policies (JUP) encourage shared facility use, usually between schools and a city or private organization, for both physical activity-related and non-physical activity-related programs. Little is known about JUP's impact on physical activity (PA). This study examined whether more specific JUPs were associated with increased PA and decreased sedentary behavior (SB) in adolescents.

METHODS

Data on PA, sports participation, and SB were taken from annual cross-sectional nationally representative samples of 51,269 8th, 10th and 12th grade public school students nested in 461 school districts in the US from 2009-2011. JUP measures were constructed using information obtained from corresponding school district JU policies. Multivariable analyses were conducted, controlling for individual demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and clustering at the district level.

RESULTS

Results showed small associations between more specific JUPs and increased PA (IRR 1.01, 95% CI: 1.00, 1.02). Closer examination of specific JUP provisions indicates that specifying what times facilities are available for use was associated with vigorous exercise and prioritizing school or affiliated organizations' use and which spaces were available for use were associated with vigorous exercise and more frequent PA participation, which includes participation in sports or athletics. No associations were found between more specific JUPs and SB.

CONCLUSIONS

JUPS may have small influences on adolescent physical activity behavior. Future longitudinal studies should be conducted to examine the impact of JUPs in conjunction with other physical activity-related policies and environmental changes to determine what impact they have on overall adolescent physical activity and sedentary behavior.

The association of soda sales tax and school nutrition laws: a concordance of policies

OBJECTIVE

The current research examined the association between state disfavoured tax on soda (i.e. the difference between soda sales tax and the tax on food products generally) and a summary score representing the strength of state laws governing competitive beverages (beverages that compete with the beverages in the federally funded school lunch programme) in US schools.

DESIGN

The Classification of Laws Associated with School Students (CLASS) summary score reflected the strength of a state's laws restricting competitive beverages sold in school stores, vending machines, school fundraisers and à la carte cafeteria items. Bridging the Gap (BTG) is a nationally recognized research initiative that provided state-level soda tax data. The main study outcome was the states' competitive beverage summary scores for elementary, middle and high school grade levels, as predicted by the states' disfavoured soda tax. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted, adjusting for year and state.

SETTING

Data from BTG and CLASS were used.

SUBJECTS

BTG and CLASS data from all fifty states and the District of Columbia from 2003 to 2010 were used.

RESULTS

A higher disfavoured soda sales tax was generally associated with an increased likelihood of having strong school beverage laws across grade levels, and especially when disfavoured soda sales tax was >5 %.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest a concordance between states' soda taxes and laws governing beverages sold in schools. States with high disfavoured sales tax on soda had stronger competitive beverage laws, indicating that the state sales tax environment may be associated with laws governing beverage policy in schools.

State farm-to-school laws influence the availability of fruits and vegetables in school lunches at US public elementary schools

BACKGROUND

State laws and farm-to-school programs (FTSPs) have the potential to increase fruit and vegetable (FV) availability in school meals. This study examined whether FV were more available in public elementary school lunches in states with a law requiring/encouraging FTSPs or with a locally grown-related law, and whether the relationship between state laws and FV availability could be explained by schools opting for FTSPs.

METHODS

A pooled, cross-sectional analysis linked a nationally representative sample of public elementary schools with state laws. A series of multivariate logistic regressions, controlling for school-level demographics were performed according to mediation analysis procedures for dichotomous outcomes.

RESULTS

Roughly 50% of schools reported FV availability in school lunches on most days of the week. Schools with the highest FV availability (70.6%) were in states with laws and schools with FTSPs. State laws requiring/encouraging FTSPs were significantly associated with increased FV availability in schools and a significant percentage (13%) of this relationship was mediated by schools having FTSPs.

CONCLUSIONS

Because state farm-to-school laws are associated with significantly higher FV availability in schools-through FTSPs, as well as independently-enacting more state legislation may facilitate increased FTSP participation by schools and increased FV availability in school meals.

Sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in the U.S.: novel assessment methodology

BACKGROUND

Sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption has been linked with poor diet quality, weight gain, and increased risk for obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Previous studies have been hampered by inconsistent definitions and a failure to capture all types of SSBs.

PURPOSE

To comprehensively examine total SSB consumption in the U.S. using an all-encompassing definition that includes beverages calorically sweetened after purchase in addition to presweetened beverages.

METHODS

Data from the 2005-2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (N=17,078) were analyzed in September 2012 and used to estimate calories (kilocalories) of added sugars from SSBs and to identify top sources of SSBs.

RESULTS

On average, Americans aged ≥2 years consumed 171 kcal (8% of total kcal) per day from added sugars in SSBs; the top sources were soda, fruit drinks, tea, coffee, energy/sports drinks, and flavored milks. Male adolescents (aged 12-19 years) had the highest mean intakes (293 kcal/day; 12% of total kcal).

CONCLUSIONS

Americans consume more calories from added sugars in beverages than previously reported. The methodology presented in this paper allows for more-comprehensive estimates than those previously used regarding the extent to which SSBs provide calories from added sugars.

Walkable communities and adolescent weight

BACKGROUND

Neighborhood design features have been associated with health outcomes, including the prevalence of obesity.

PURPOSE

This study examined the association between walkability and adolescent weight in a national sample of public secondary school students and the communities in which they live.

METHODS

Data were collected through student surveys and community observations between February and August 2010, and analyses were conducted in Spring 2012. The sample size was 154 communities and 11,041 students. A community walkability index and measures of the prevalence of adolescent overweight and obesity were constructed. Multivariable analyses from a cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of 8th-, 10th- and 12th-grade public school students in the U.S. were run.

RESULTS

The odds of students being overweight (AOR 0.98, 95% CI=0.95, 0.99) or obese (AOR=0.97, 95% CI=0.95, 0.99) decreased if they lived in communities with higher walkability index scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that living in more-walkable communities is associated with reduced prevalence of adolescent overweight and obesity.

The relationship among state laws, district policies, and elementary school-based measurement of children's body mass index

BACKGROUND

School-based measurement of children's body mass index (BMI) is a useful tool for tracking childhood obesity rates, and may be an effective intervention strategy for reducing the increasing trends in obesity. This article examines the relationship between state law, district policy, and school-level BMI measurement practices.

METHODS

Data were collected during 3 school years (2006-2007, 2007-2008, 2008-2009) as part of an annual study on health policies and practices in a nationally representative sample of US public elementary schools. Data collected included school-level data via a mailed questionnaire, and district-level policies and state laws from publicly available sources. We examined whether state laws and district policies were linked to school-level BMI measurement, either directly, or via a mediation effect.

RESULTS

Schools were most likely to measure student BMI if there was a state law in place (65.0% of schools) than where there was not a state law regarding BMI measurement (38.4% of schools; χ(2) = 120.91, p < .001). However, school-level BMI measurement did not differ by whether the district had a relevant policy or not (49.8% vs. 49.2%, ns). These effects held up in multivariate logistic regression models controlling for relevant school-level covariates (region, race/ethnicity, location, school size, and socioeconomic status). Schools in the south and those with a majority of White students were most likely to measure students' BMI.

CONCLUSION

State laws are associated with school-level BMI measurement, and therefore may be a helpful tool in monitoring and addressing childhood obesity.

Are farm-to-school programs more common in states with farm-to-school-related laws?

BACKGROUND

Farm-to-School programs (FTSPs) connect schools with locally grown food. This article examines whether FTSPs are more common in public elementary schools (ESs) in states with a formal, FTSP law or with a related, locally grown procurement law.

METHODS

A pooled, cross-sectional analysis linked nationally representative samples of 1872 public ESs (across 47 states) for the 2006-2007, 2007-2008, and 2008-2009 school years with state laws effective as of the beginning of September of each year that were collected and analyzed for all states. Multivariate logistic regression models examined the impact of state law on school FTSP participation, controlling for year and school-level race/ethnicity, region, locale, free-reduced lunch participation, and school size.

RESULTS

The percentage of schools located in a state with a FTSP-specific law increased from 7.3% to 20.4% over the 3-year period, while the percentage of schools located in a state with a locally grown procurement law was approximately 30% across all years. The percentage of schools with FTSPs has more than tripled over the last 3 years (from 4.9% to 17.7%). After adjusting for all covariates except year, FTSPs were significantly more likely in states with a FTSP-specific law (OR = 2.45, 95% CI = 1.28-4.67); once adjusting for year, the results were marginally significant (OR = 1.72, 95% CI = .91-3.25). School-level FTSPs were not related to state locally grown procurement laws.

CONCLUSION

Although the percentage of schools with FTSPs is relatively small, these programs are becoming more common, particularly in states with FTSP-specific laws.

The impact of state laws and district policies on physical education and recess practices in a nationally representative sample of US public elementary schools

OBJECTIVE

To examine the impact of state- and school district-level policies on the prevalence of physical education (PE) and recess in a nationally representative sample of US public elementary schools.

DESIGN

Analyses from annual, nationally representative, cross-sectional surveys of school administrators in the United States.

SETTING

Data were collected through surveys conducted between February and June during the 2006-2007 through 2008-2009 school years. State laws and district policies were compiled annually by researchers at the University of Illinois at Chicago using established legal research techniques.

PARTICIPANTS

The sample size was 47 states, 690 districts, and 1761 schools.

MAIN EXPOSURES

State- and school district-level PE and recess-related laws.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Twenty minutes of daily recess and 150 min/wk of PE.

RESULTS

The odds of schools having 150 min/wk of PE increased if they were located in states (odds ratio [OR], 2.8; 95% CI, 1.3-5.7) or school districts (OR, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.3-4.3) having a law or policy requiring 150 min/wk of PE. Schools located in states with laws encouraging daily recess were significantly more likely to have 20 minutes of recess daily (OR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.2-2.8). District policies were not significantly associated with school-level recess practices. Adequate PE time was inversely associated with recess and vice versa, suggesting that schools are substituting one form of physical activity for another rather than providing the recommended amount of both recess and PE.

CONCLUSION

By mandating PE or recess, policy makers can effectively increase school-based physical activity opportunities for youth.

Associations between state-level soda taxes and adolescent body mass index

PURPOSE

Soft drink consumption has been linked with higher energy intake, obesity, and poorer health. Fiscal pricing policies such as soda taxes may lower soda consumption and, in turn, reduce weight among U.S. adolescents.

METHODS

This study used multivariate linear regression analyses to examine the associations between state-level grocery store and vending machine soda taxes and adolescent body mass index (BMI). We used repeated cross-sections of individual-level data on adolescents drawn from the Monitoring the Future surveys combined with state-level tax data and local area contextual measures for the years 1997 through 2006.

RESULTS

The results showed no statistically significant associations between state-level soda taxes and adolescent BMI. Only a weak economic and statistically significant effect was found between vending machine soda tax rates and BMI among teens at risk for overweight.

CONCLUSIONS

Current state-level tax rates are not found to be significantly associated with adolescent weight outcomes. It is likely that taxes would need to be raised substantially to detect significant associations between taxes and adolescent weight.

Strength of clean indoor air laws and smoking related outcomes in the USA

OBJECTIVES

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is often encountered in the workplace. There have been efforts to apply and enforce state laws limiting workplace smoking. There has been little study of the relative effectiveness of state and/or local laws in affecting both rates of workplace ETS exposure and adult smoking rates. This study investigates these hypotheses, as well as the effect of these laws on youth smoking.

DESIGN

This is a secondary data analysis using sources including the Current Population Survey (CPS), Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), and the National Household Survey of Drug Abuse (NHSDA) between the years of 1996 and 1999. Linear regression models were used to investigate the effect of a state's clean indoor air (CIA) law (using a measure of extensiveness) on the overall amount of people who reported working in a smoke-free environment, youth smoking rates and adult smoking rates.

RESULTS

The extensiveness of a state's CIA law was found to be a reliable predictor of the percentage of indoor workers who report a smoke-free work environment and the rates of youth smoking. State CIA laws were not conclusively associated with adult smoking rates.

CONCLUSIONS

The extensiveness of a state's CIA law is strongly associated with a higher percentage of indoor workers reporting a smoke-free work environment. This study did not reveal a similar association between local laws and smoke-free work environments. Youth smoking rates, shown to be related to state CIA laws, may be further affected with more stringent CIA policy.

What does it mean to decriminalize marijuana? A cross-national empirical examination

Although frequently discussed as a singular policy, there is tremendous variation in the laws and regulations surrounding so-called decriminalization policies adopted by Western countries, with many jurisdictions adopting depenalization policies rather than policies that actually change the criminal status of cannabis possession offences. This paper provides a discussion of the liberalization policies being adopted in Western countries, highlighting distinct elements about particular policies that are important for proper analysis and interpretation of the policies. It then discusses some of the environmental factors that also shape these policies, and hence influence their potential impact, using data from the U.S.A. as a particular example. The results clearly show that researchers should be careful conducting intra- or international comparisons of policies because important aspects of these policies are frequently ignored.