Evaluation of Tunisian wheat endophytes as plant growth promoting bacteria and biological control agents against Fusarium culmorum

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) applications have emerged as an ideal substitute for synthetic chemicals by their ability to improve plant nutrition and resistance against pathogens. In this study, we isolated fourteen root endophytes from healthy wheat roots cultivated in Tunisia. The isolates were identified based from their 16S rRNA gene sequences. They belonged to Bacillota and Pseudomonadota taxa. Fourteen strains were tested for their growth-promoting and defense-eliciting potentials on durum wheat under greenhouse conditions, and for their in vitro biocontrol power against Fusarium culmorum, an ascomycete responsible for seedling blight, foot and root rot, and head blight diseases of wheat. We found that all the strains improved shoot and/or root biomass accumulation, with Bacillus mojavensis, Paenibacillus peoriae and Variovorax paradoxus showing the strongest promoting effects. These physiological effects were correlated with the plant growth-promoting traits of the bacterial endophytes, which produced indole-related compounds, ammonia, and hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and solubilized phosphate and zinc. Likewise, plant defense accumulations were modulated lastingly and systematically in roots and leaves by all the strains. Testing in vitro antagonism against F. culmorum revealed an inhibition activity exceeding 40% for five strains: Bacillus cereus, Paenibacillus peoriae, Paenibacillus polymyxa, Pantoae agglomerans, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These strains exhibited significant inhibitory effects on F. culmorum mycelia growth, sporulation, and/or macroconidia germination. P. peoriae performed best, with total inhibition of sporulation and macroconidia germination. These finding highlight the effectiveness of root bacterial endophytes in promoting plant growth and resistance, and in controlling phytopathogens such as F. culmorum. This is the first report identifying 14 bacterial candidates as potential agents for the control of F. culmorum, of which Paenibacillus peoriae and/or its intracellular metabolites have potential for development as biopesticides.

Assessment of Tunisian Trichoderma Isolates on Wheat Seed Germination, Seedling Growth and Fusarium Seedling Blight Suppression

Beneficial microorganisms, including members of the Trichoderma genus, are known for their ability to promote plant growth and disease resistance, as well as being alternatives to synthetic inputs in agriculture. In this study, 111 Trichoderma strains were isolated from the rhizospheric soil of Florence Aurore, an ancient wheat variety that was cultivated in an organic farming system in Tunisia. A preliminary ITS analysis allowed us to cluster these 111 isolates into three main groups, T. harzianum (74 isolates), T. lixii (16 isolates) and T. sp. (21 isolates), represented by six different species. Their multi-locus analysis (tef1, translation elongation factor 1; rpb2, RNA polymerase B) identified three T. afroharzianum, one T. lixii, one T. atrobrunneum and one T. lentinulae species. These six new strains were selected to determine their suitability as plant growth promoters (PGP) and biocontrol agents (BCA) against Fusarium seedling blight disease (FSB) in wheat caused by Fusarium culmorum. All of the strains exhibited PGP abilities correlated to ammonia and indole-like compound production. In terms of biocontrol activity, all of the strains inhibited the development of F. culmorum in vitro, which is linked to the production of lytic enzymes, as well as diffusible and volatile organic compounds. An in planta assay was carried out on the seeds of a Tunisian modern wheat variety (Khiar) by coating them with Trichoderma. A significant increase in biomass was observed, which is associated with increased chlorophyll and nitrogen. An FSB bioprotective effect was confirmed for all strains (with Th01 being the most effective) by suppressing morbid symptoms in germinated seeds and seedlings, as well as by limiting F. culmorum aggressiveness on overall plant growth. Plant transcriptome analysis revealed that the isolates triggered several SA- and JA-dependent defense-encoding genes involved in F. culmorum resistance in the roots and leaves of three-week-old seedlings. This finding makes these strains very promising in promoting growth and controlling FSB disease in modern wheat varieties.

Genome-Wide Identification, Structure Characterization, and Expression Pattern Profiling of the Aquaporin Gene Family in Betula pendula

Aquaporin water channels (AQPs) constitute a large family of transmembrane proteins present throughout all kingdoms of life. They play key roles in the flux of water and many solutes across the membranes. The AQP diversity, protein features, and biological functions of silver birch are still unknown. A genome analysis of Betula pendula identified 33 putative genes encoding full-length AQP sequences (BpeAQPs). They are grouped into five subfamilies, representing ten plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs), eight tonoplast intrinsic proteins (TIPs), eight NOD26-like intrinsic proteins (NIPs), four X intrinsic proteins (XIPs), and three small basic intrinsic proteins (SIPs). The BpeAQP gene structure is conserved within each subfamily, with exon numbers ranging from one to five. The predictions of the aromatic/arginine selectivity filter (ar/R), Froger's positions, specificity-determining positions, and 2D and 3D biochemical properties indicate noticeable transport specificities to various non-aqueous substrates between members and/or subfamilies. Nevertheless, overall, the BpePIPs display mostly hydrophilic ar/R selective filter and lining-pore residues, whereas the BpeTIP, BpeNIP, BpeSIP, and BpeXIP subfamilies mostly contain hydrophobic permeation signatures. Transcriptional expression analyses indicate that 23 BpeAQP genes are transcribed, including five organ-related expressions. Surprisingly, no significant transcriptional expression is monitored in leaves in response to cold stress (6 °C), although interesting trends can be distinguished and will be discussed, notably in relation to the plasticity of this pioneer species, B. pendula. The current study presents the first detailed genome-wide analysis of the AQP gene family in a Betulaceae species, and our results lay a foundation for a better understanding of the specific functions of the BpeAQP genes in the responses of the silver birch trees to cold stress.

Early transcriptional response to gravistimulation in poplar without phototropic confounding factors

In response to gravistimulation under anisotropic light, tree stems showing an active cambium produce reaction wood that redirects the axis of the trees. Several studies have described transcriptomic or proteomic models of reaction wood relative to the opposite wood. However, the mechanisms leading to the formation of reaction wood are difficult to decipher because so many environmental factors can induce various signalling pathways leading to this developmental reprogramming. Using an innovative isotropic device where the phototropic response does not interfere with gravistimulation we characterized the early molecular responses occurring in the stem of poplar after gravistimulation in an isotropic environment, and without deformation of the stem. After 30 min tilting at 35° under anisotropic light, we collected the upper and lower xylems from the inclined stems. Controls were collected from vertical stems. We used a microarray approach to identify differentially expressed transcripts. High-throughput real-time PCR allowed a kinetic experiment at 0, 30, 120 and 180 min after tilting at 35°, with candidate genes. We identified 668 differentially expressed transcripts, from which we selected 153 candidates for additional Fluidigm qPCR assessment. Five candidate co-expression gene clusters have been identified after the kinetic monitoring of the expression of candidate genes. Gene ontology analyses indicate that molecular reprogramming of processes such as 'wood cell expansion', 'cell wall reorganization' and 'programmed cell death' occur as early as 30 min after gravistimulation. Of note is that the change in the expression of different genes involves a fine regulation of gibberellin and brassinosteroid pathways as well as flavonoid and phosphoinositide pathways. Our experimental set-up allowed the identification of genes regulated in early gravitropic response without the bias introduced by phototropic and stem bending responses.

Voltage-gating of aquaporins, a putative conserved safety mechanism during ionic stresses

Aquaporins are transmembrane water channels found in almost every living organism. Numerous studies have brought a good understanding of both water transport through their pores and the regulations taking place at the molecular level, but subtleties remain to be clarified. Recently, a voltage-related gating mechanism involving the conserved arginine of the channel's main constriction was captured for human aquaporins through molecular dynamics studies. With a similar approach, we show that this voltage-gating could be conserved among this family and that the underlying mechanism could explain part of plant AQPs diversity when contextualized to high ionic concentrations provoked by drought. Finally, we identified residues as adaptive traits which constitute good targets for drought resistance plant breeding research.

Genome Wild Analysis and Molecular Understanding of the Aquaporin Diversity in Olive Trees (Olea Europaea L.)

Cellular aquaporin water channels (AQPs) constitute a large family of transmembrane proteins present throughout all kingdoms of life, playing important roles in the uptake of water and many solutes across the membranes. In olive trees, AQP diversity, protein features and their biological functions are still largely unknown. This study focuses on the structure and functional and evolution diversity of AQP subfamilies in two olive trees, the wild species Olea europaea var. sylvestris (OeuAQPs) and the domesticated species Olea europaea cv. Picual (OleurAQPs), and describes their involvement in different physiological processes of early plantlet development and in biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in the domesticated species. A scan of genomes from the wild and domesticated olive species revealed the presence of 52 and 79 genes encoding full-length AQP sequences, respectively. Cross-genera phylogenetic analysis with orthologous clustered OleaAQPs into five established subfamilies: PIP, TIP, NIP, SIP, and XIP. Subsequently, gene structures, protein motifs, substrate specificities and cellular localizations of the full length OleaAQPs were predicted. Functional prediction based on the NPA motif, ar/R selectivity filter, Froger's and specificity-determining positions suggested differences in substrate specificities of Olea AQPs. Expression analysis of the OleurAQP genes indicates that some genes are tissue-specific, whereas few others show differential expressions at different developmental stages and in response to various biotic and abiotic stresses. The current study presents the first detailed genome-wide analysis of the AQP gene family in olive trees and it provides valuable information for further functional analysis to infer the role of AQP in the adaptation of olive trees in diverse environmental conditions in order to help the genetic improvement of domesticated olive trees.

Integrated drought responses of black poplar: how important is phenotypic plasticity?

Climate change is expected to increase drought frequency and intensity which will threaten plant growth and survival. In such fluctuating environments, perennial plants respond with hydraulic and biomass adjustments, resulting in either tolerant or avoidant strategies. Plants' response to stress relies on their phenotypic plasticity. The goal of this study was to explore physiology of young Populus nigra in the context of a time-limited and progressive water deficit in regard to their growth and stress response strategies. Fourteen French 1-year-old black poplar genotypes, geographically contrasted, were subjected to withholding water during 8 days until severe water stress. Water fluxes (i.e. leaf water potentials and stomatal conductance) were analyzed together with growth (i.e. radial and longitudinal branch growth, leaf senescence and leaf production). Phenotypic plasticity was calculated for each trait and response strategies to drought were deciphered for each genotype. Black poplar genotypes permanently were dealing with a continuum of adjusted water fluxes and growth between two extreme strategies, tolerance and avoidance. Branch growth, leaf number and leaf hydraulic potential traits had contrasted plasticities, allowing genotype characterization. The most tolerant genotype to water deficit, which maintained growth, had the lowest global phenotypic plasticity. Conversely, the most sensitive and avoidant genotype ceased growth until the season's end, had the highest plasticity level. All the remaining black poplar genotypes were close to avoidance with average levels of traits plasticity. These results underpinned the role of plasticity in black poplar response to drought and calls for its wider use into research on plants' responses to stress.

Genome-Wide Analysis of Corynespora cassiicola Leaf Fall Disease Putative Effectors

Corynespora cassiicola is an Ascomycetes fungus with a broad host range and diverse life styles. Mostly known as a necrotrophic plant pathogen, it has also been associated with rare cases of human infection. In the rubber tree, this fungus causes the Corynespora leaf fall (CLF) disease, which increasingly affects natural rubber production in Asia and Africa. It has also been found as an endophyte in South American rubber plantations where no CLF outbreak has yet occurred. The C. cassiicola species is genetically highly diverse, but no clear relationship has been evidenced between phylogenetic lineage and pathogenicity. Cassiicolin, a small glycosylated secreted protein effector, is thought to be involved in the necrotrophic interaction with the rubber tree but some virulent C. cassiicola isolates do not have a cassiicolin gene. This study set out to identify other putative effectors involved in CLF. The genome of a highly virulent C. cassiicola isolate from the rubber tree (CCP) was sequenced and assembled. In silico prediction revealed 2870 putative effectors, comprising CAZymes, lipases, peptidases, secreted proteins and enzymes associated with secondary metabolism. Comparison with the genomes of 44 other fungal species, focusing on effector content, revealed a striking proximity with phylogenetically unrelated species (Colletotrichum acutatum, Colletotrichum gloesporioides, Fusarium oxysporum, nectria hematococca, and Botrosphaeria dothidea) sharing life style plasticity and broad host range. Candidate effectors involved in the compatible interaction with the rubber tree were identified by transcriptomic analysis. Differentially expressed genes included 92 putative effectors, among which cassiicolin and two other secreted singleton proteins. Finally, the genomes of 35 C. cassiicola isolates representing the genetic diversity of the species were sequenced and assembled, and putative effectors identified. At the intraspecific level, effector-based classification was found to be highly consistent with the phylogenomic trees. Identification of lineage-specific effectors is a key step toward understanding C. cassiicola virulence and host specialization mechanisms.

Effect of acibenzolar-S-methyl phototransformation on its elicitation activity in tobacco cells

The plant activator acibenzolar-S-methyl (BTH) undergoes phototransformation when exposed to solar radiation. Here we investigated the changes in its elicitation properties on BY-2 tobacco cells at different stages of the photochemical reaction. Both pure BTH and formulated BTH were irradiated in controlled conditions to achieve different extents of conversion. Both pure BTH (900 μM) and Bion® (0.4 g.L-1) induced BY-2 cell death, but BTH photoconverted to an extent of 25 ± 3% lowered the cell death rate. A kinetic study of β-1,3-glucanase and chitinase activities was conducted on BY-2 extracellular medium. Exposure of tobacco cells to either pure BTH or Bion® resulted in a significant increase in the activities of both defense enzymes, which peaked 48 h after the treatment. The pathogenesis-related (PR) protein activities were quantified 48 h after elicitation for a range of phototransformed BTH solutions. The enzyme activities were reduced when BY-2 cells were treated with solutions in which BTH conversion was 22 ± 3%, 42 ± 3% and 100 ± 3%, but were not affected by the solution in which BTH was phototransformed at 60%, suggesting that some of the secondary photoproducts also exhibit eliciting properties. Solar irradiation of BTH thus impairs its elicitation properties, but this impairment depends strongly on the extent of phototransformation.

The Hevea brasiliensis XIP aquaporin subfamily: genomic, structural and functional characterizations with relevance to intensive latex harvesting

X-Intrinsic Proteins (XIP) were recently identified in a narrow range of plants as a full clade within the aquaporins. These channels reportedly facilitate the transport of a wide range of hydrophobic solutes. The functional roles of XIP in planta remain poorly identified. In this study, we found three XIP genes (HbXIP1;1, HbXIP2;1 and HbXIP3;1) in the Hevea brasiliensis genome. Comprehensive bioinformatics, biochemical and structural analyses were used to acquire a better understanding of this AQP subfamily. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that HbXIPs clustered into two major groups, each distributed in a specific lineage of the order Malpighiales. Tissue-specific expression profiles showed that only HbXIP2;1 was expressed in all the vegetative tissues tested (leaves, stem, bark, xylem and latex), suggesting that HbXIP2;1 could take part in a wide range of cellular processes. This is particularly relevant to the rubber-producing laticiferous system, where this isoform was found to be up-regulated during tapping and ethylene treatments. Furthermore, the XIP transcriptional pattern is significantly correlated to latex production level. Structural comparison with SoPIP2;1 from Spinacia oleracea species provides new insights into the possible role of structural checkpoints by which HbXIP2;1 ensures glycerol transfer across the membrane. From these results, we discuss the physiological involvement of glycerol and HbXIP2;1 in water homeostasis and carbon stream of challenged laticifers. The characterization of HbXIP2;1 during rubber tree tapping lends new insights into molecular and physiological response processes of laticifer metabolism in the context of latex exploitation.

Gravity sensing, a largely misunderstood trigger of plant orientated growth

Gravity is a crucial environmental factor regulating plant growth and development. Plants have the ability to sense a change in the direction of gravity, which leads to the re-orientation of their growth direction, so-called gravitropism. In general, plant stems grow upward (negative gravitropism), whereas roots grow downward (positive gravitropism). Models describing the gravitropic response following the tilting of plants are presented and highlight that gravitropic curvature involves both gravisensing and mechanosensing, thus allowing to revisit experimental data. We also discuss the challenge to set up experimental designs for discriminating between gravisensing and mechanosensing. We then present the cellular events and the molecular actors known to be specifically involved in gravity sensing.

Aquaporins and leaf hydraulics: poplar sheds new light

To help understand leaf hydraulic conductance (Kleaf) modulation under high irradiance, well-watered poplars (Populus trichocarpa Torr. & Gray ex Hook and Populus nigra L.) were studied diurnally at molecular and ecophysiological scales. Transcriptional and translational modulations of plasma membrane intrinsic protein (PIP) aquaporins were evaluated in leaf samples during diurnal time courses. Among the 15 poplar PIP genes, a subset of two PIP1s and seven PIP2s are precociously induced within the first hour of the photoperiod concomitantly with a Kleaf increase. Since expression patterns were cyclic and reproducible over several days, we hypothesized that endogenous signals could be involved in PIP transcriptional regulation. To address this question, plants were submitted to forced darkness during their subjective photoperiod and compared with their control counterparts, which showed that some PIP1s and PIP2s have circadian regulation while others did not. Promoter analysis revealed that a large number of hormone, light, stress response and circadian elements are present. Finally, involvement of aquaporins is supported by the reduction of Kleaf by HgCl2 treatment.

Modulation of bud survival in Populus nigra sprouts in response to water stress-induced embolism

Understanding drought tolerance mechanisms requires knowledge about the induced weakness that leads to tree death. Bud survival is vital to sustain tree growth across seasons. We hypothesized that the hydraulic connection of the bud to stem xylem structures was critical for its survival. During an artificial drastic water stress, we carried out a census of bud metabolic activity of young Populus nigra L. trees by microcalorimetry. We monitored transcript expression of aquaporins (AQPs; plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs), X intrinsic proteins (XIPs) and tonoplast membrane intrinsic proteins (TIPs)) and measured local water status within the bud and tissues in the bearer shoot node by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging. We found that the bud respiration rate was closely correlated with its water content and decreased concomitantly in buds and their surrounding bearer tissues. At the molecular level, we observed a modulation of AQP pattern expressions (PIP, TIP and XIP subfamilies) linked to water movements in living cells. However, AQP functions remain to be investigated. Both the bud and tree died beyond a threshold water content and respiration rate. Nuclear magnetic resonance images provided relevant local information about the various water reservoirs of the stem, their dynamics and their interconnections. Comparison of pith, xylem and cambium tissues revealed that the hydraulic connection between the bud and saturated parenchyma cells around the pith allowed bud desiccation to be delayed. At the tree death date, NMR images showed that the cambium tissues remained largely hydrated. Overall, the respiration rate (Rco2) and a few AQP isoforms were found to be two suitable, complementary criteria to assess the bud metabolic activity and the ability to survive a severe drought spell. Bud moisture content could be a key factor in determining the capacity of poplar to recover from water stress.

Insights into Populus XIP aquaporins: evolutionary expansion, protein functionality, and environmental regulation

A novel category of major intrinsic proteins which share weak similarities with previously identified aquaporin subfamilies was recently identified in land plants, and named X (for unrecognized) intrinsic proteins (XIPs). Because XIPs are still ranked as uncharacterized proteins, their further molecular characterization is required. Herein, a systematic fine-scale analysis of XIP sequences found in flowering plant databases revealed that XIPs are found in at least five groups. The phylogenetic relationship of these five groups with the phylogenetic organization of angiosperms revealed an original pattern of evolution for the XIP subfamily through distinct angiosperm taxon-specific clades. Of all flowering plant having XIPs, the genus Populus encompasses the broadest panel and the highest polymorphism of XIP isoforms, with nine PtXIP sequences distributed within three XIP groups. Comprehensive PtXIP gene expression patterns showed that only two isoforms (PtXIP2;1 and PtXIP3;2) were transcribed in vegetative tissues. However, their patterns are contrasted, PtXIP2;1 was ubiquitously accumulated whereas PtXIP3;2 was predominantly detected in wood and to a lesser extent in roots. Furthermore, only PtXIP2;1 exhibited a differential expression in leaves and stems of drought-, salicylic acid-, or wounding-challenged plants. Unexpectedly, the PtXIPs displayed different abilities to alter water transport upon expression in Xenopus laevis oocytes. PtXIP2;1 and PtXIP3;3 transported water while other PtXIPs did not.

Putative role of aquaporins in variable hydraulic conductance of leaves in response to light

Molecular and physiological studies in walnut (Juglans regia) are combined to establish the putative role of leaf plasma membrane aquaporins in the response of leaf hydraulic conductance (K(leaf)) to irradiance. The effects of light and temperature on K(leaf) are described. Under dark conditions, K(leaf) was low, but increased by 400% upon exposure to light. In contrast to dark conditions, K(leaf) values of light-exposed leaves responded to temperature and 0.1 mm cycloheximide treatments. Furthermore, K(leaf) was not related to stomatal aperture. Data of real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed that K(leaf) dynamics were tightly correlated with the transcript abundance of two walnut aquaporins (JrPIP2,1 and JrPIP2,2). Low K(leaf) in the dark was associated with down-regulation, whereas high K(leaf) in the light was associated with up-regulation of JrPIP2. Light responses of K(leaf) and aquaporin transcripts were reversible and inhibited by cycloheximide, indicating the importance of de novo protein biosynthesis in this process. Our results indicate that walnut leaves can rapidly change their hydraulic conductance and suggest that these changes can be explained by regulation of plasma membrane aquaporins. Model simulation suggests that variable leaf hydraulic conductance in walnut might enhance leaf gas exchanges while buffering leaf water status in response to ambient light fluctuations.

Resistance of sunflower to the biotrophic oomycete Plasmopara halstedii is associated with a delayed hypersensitive response within the hypocotyls

The biotrophic oomycete Plasmopara halstedii is the causal agent of downy mildew in sunflower. It penetrates the roots of both susceptible and resistant sunflower lines and grows through the hypocotyls towards the upper part of the seedling. RT-PCR analysis has shown that resistance is associated with the activation of a hsr203J-like gene, which is a molecular marker of the hypersensitive reaction in tobacco. Activation of this gene was specifically observed during the incompatible interaction and coincided with cell collapse in the hypocotyls. This HR was also associated with the early and local activation of the NPR1 gene which is a key component in the establishment of the SAR. No such HR or a significant activation of the hsr203J-like gene were observed during the compatible combination. These results suggest that the resistance of sunflower to P. halstedii is associated with an HR which fails to halt the parasite. By contrast, this HR triggers a SAR which takes places in the upper part of the hypocotyls and eventually leads to the arrest of parasite growth. A model describing the resistance of plants to root-infecting oomycetes is proposed.

Expression of viral EPS-depolymerase reduces fire blight susceptibility in transgenic pear

Erwinia amylovora is the causal agent of fire blight of Maloideae. One of the main pathogenicity factors of this bacterium is the exopolysaccharide (EPS) of its capsule. In this paper, we used genetic transformation tools to constitutively express an EPS-depolymerase transgene in the pear (Pyrus communis L.) cv. Passe Crassane with the aim of decreasing its high susceptibility to fire blight. Expression of the depolymerase gene in 15 independent transgenic clones led, on average, to low depolymerase activity, although relatively high expression was observed at the transcriptional and translational levels. Only two of the transgenic clones (9X and 10M) consistently showed a decrease in fire blight susceptibility in vitro and in the greenhouse. These clones were also among the highest expressers of depolymerase at the RNA and enzyme activity levels. The correlation observed among all transgenic clones between depolymerase expression and fire blight resistance suggested the potential of this strategy.

Activation of three pathogen-inducible promoters of tobacco in transgenic pear (Pyrus communis L.) after abiotic and biotic elicitation

In order to improve pear resistance against fire blight caused by Erwinia amylovora, a search for promoters driving high-level expression of transgenes specifically in response to this bacterial pathogen has been undertaken. We have examined the ability of hsr203J, str246C and sgd24 tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) promoters to drive expression of the uidA reporter gene in pear. Transgenic pear clones were obtained by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. Beta-glucuronidase activity was determined quantitatively and qualitatively in these plants grown in vitro using fluorometric and histochemical assays and compared to cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter-driven activity. The hsr203J promoter appeared to be very weakly activated following inoculation in pear, which is the converse of the situation in tobacco. The str246C promoter was rapidly activated in pear during compatible and incompatible interactions, by wounding and following the application of several elicitors (capsicein, cryptogein, harpin, salicylic acid and jasmonic acid). The sgd24 promoter, a deletion derivative of str246C, exhibited a low level of expression after bacterial inoculation, was weakly activated by wounding and elicitors, and was not activated by phytohormones (salicylic acid and jasmonic acid). Interestingly, the sgd24 promoter was locally activated in pear, whereas the str246C promoter was activated systemically from the infection site. Taken together, these data show that, although the s tr246C and sgd24 promoters are less active than the CaMV35S promoter in pear, their pathogen-responsiveness would permit them to be used to drive the expression of transgenes to promote bacterial disease resistance.

Involvement of three pathogenicity factors of Erwinia amylovora in the oxidative stress associated with compatible interaction in pear

Erwinia amylovora, the causal agent of fire blight of Maloideae, induces in its susceptible host plants an oxidative burst as does an incompatible pathogen. In this paper we present evidence that the elicitation of this phenomenon is the result of the combined action of two Hrp effectors of the bacteria, HrpN and DspA. We also confirmed that desferrioxamine, the siderophore of E. amylovora, is necessary for the bacteria to tolerate high levels of hydrogen peroxide. Two other pathogenicity factors of the bacteria, the HrpW effector and the capsule, do not seem to play any role in the elicitation of the oxidative burst nor in the protection of the bacteria.

Modulation of defense responses of Malus spp. during compatible and incompatible interactions with Erwinia amylovora

Erwinia amylovora is the causal agent of fire blight, a disease affecting members of subfamily Maloideae. In order to analyze mechanisms leading to compatible or incompatible interactions, early plant molecular events were investigated in two genotypes of Malus with contrasting susceptibility to fire blight, after confrontation with either E. amylovora or the incompatible tobacco pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci. Many defense mechanisms, including generation of an oxidative burst and accumulation of pathogenesis-related proteins, were elicited in both resistant and susceptible genotypes by the two pathogens at similar rates and according to an equivalent time course. This elicitation was linked with the functional hypersensitive reaction and pathogenicity (hrp) cluster of E. amylovora, because an hrp secretion mutant did not induce such responses. However, a delayed induction of several genes of various branch pathways of the phenylpropanoid metabolism was recorded in tissues of the susceptible genotype challenged with the wild-type strain of E. amylovora, whereas these genes were quickly induced in every other plant-bacteria interaction, including interactions with the hrp secretion mutant. This suggests the existence of hrp-independent elicitors of defense in the fire blight pathogen as well as hrp-dependant mechanisms of suppression of these nonspecific inductions.

Evidence for the involvement of an oxidative stress in the initiation of infection of pear by Erwinia amylovora

Involvement of an oxidative burst, usually related to incompatible plant/pathogen interactions leading to hypersensitive reactions, was investigated with Erwinia amylovora, the causal agent of fire blight of Maloideae subfamily of Rosaceae, in interaction with pear (Pyrus communis; compatible situation) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum; incompatible situation). As expected, this necrogenic bacterium induced in tobacco a sustained production of superoxide anion, lipid peroxidation, electrolyte leakage, and concomitant increases of several antioxidative enzymes (ascorbate peroxidases, glutathion reductases, glutathion-S-transferases, and peroxidases), in contrast to the compatible pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tabaci, which did not cause such reactions. In pear leaves, however, inoculations with both the disease- and the hypersensitive reaction-inducing bacteria (E. amylovora and P. syringae pv tabaci, respectively) resulted in superoxide accumulation, lipid peroxidation, electrolyte leakage, and enzyme induction at similar rates and according to equivalent time courses. The unexpected ability of E. amylovora to generate an oxidative stress even in compatible situation was linked to its functional hrp (for hypersensitive reaction and pathogenicity) cluster because an Hrp secretion mutant of the bacteria did not induce any plant response. It is suggested that E. amylovora uses the production of reactive oxygen species as a tool to provoke host cell death during pathogenesis to invade plant tissues. The bacterial exopolysaccharide could protect this pathogen against the toxic effects of oxygen species since a non-capsular mutant of E. amylovora induced locally the same responses than the wild type but was unable to further colonize the plant.