Neuroprotective effects of Withania somnifera in the SH-SY5Y Parkinson cell model

Parkinson's disease is the most frequent neurodegenerative motor disorder. The clinical syndrome and pathology involve motor disturbance and the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Root extracts of Withania. somnifera, commonly called Ashwagandha, contain several major chemical constituents known as withanolides. Studies have shown that W. somnifera extracts exhibit numerous therapeutic effects including inflammation and oxidative stress reduction, memory and cognitive function improvement. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of KSM-66, W. somnifera root extract, on 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced toxicity in the human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line, as well as the associated oxidative response protein expression and redox regulation activity focused on S-glutathionylation. SH-SY5Y cells were treated with 6-OHDA preceded or followed by treatment with the KSM-66 extract. Using KSM-66 concentrations ranging from 0.25 to 1 mg/ml before and after treatment of the cells with 6-OHDA has resulted in an increased viability of SH-SY5Y cells. Interestingly, the extract significantly increased glutathione peroxidase activity and thioltransferase activity upon pre- or post- 6-OHDA treatment. KSM-66 also modulated oxidative response proteins: peroxiredoxin-I, VGF and vimentin proteins upon 6-OHDA pre/post treatments. In addition, the extract controlled redox regulation via S-glutathionylation. Pre-treatment of SH-SY5Y cells with KSM-66 decreased protein-glutathionylation levels in the cells treated with 6-OHDA. The rescue of mitochondria with 0.5 mg/ml KSM-66 extract showed an increase in ATP levels. These findings suggest that W. somnifera root extract acts as a neuroprotectant, thereby introducing a potential agent for the treatment or prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Phytochemical andrographolide modulates NF-κB and JNK in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, a cell model for Parkinson's disease

Andrographis paniculata has been an important plant for traditional medicine in Asia for centuries. Andrographolide is the primary bioactive phytochemical from the plant and is known to exhibit many different protective effects through modulation of various proteins and signaling pathways. Andrographolide has been reported to exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects as well as being an antioxidant itself. We therefore studied whether andrographolide could provide protective effects to the SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell model for Parkinson's disease. In this study, we observed andrographolide inhibiting activation of NF-κB p65 (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) and JNK MAPK (c-Jun N-terminal Kinase Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase) pathways, however, it did not provide any protective effect against induced stress in the SH-SY5Y cells. We propose the sustained low-level activation of JNK and the inhibition of NF-κB promoted ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) production that yielded the observed cell death. Therefore, the protective effects observed with andrographolide appear to be cell/tissue specific responses.

Proteomic analysis of human glutathione transferase omega (hGSTO1) stable transfection in a 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neuronal cells

Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease. The disease is associated with dopaminergic neuron losses in the substantia nigra area of the brain and the formation of cytoplasmic inclusion bodies. Human glutathione transferase omega 1 (hGSTO1) appears to have a role in modulating stress response. The study was aimed to elucidate differentially expressed proteins caused by oxidative stress induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Human neuronal cells SH-SY5Y overexpressing hGSTO1 were used to investigate protein glutathionylation and the modulation of cellular protein expression. Therefore SH-SY5Y/hGSTO1 and SH-SY5Y/control lysate proteins were separated by 2D-gel electrophoresis compared with untreated conditions in both standard and non-reducing conditions. In standard conditions, the analysis of protein profiles demonstrated 25 differentially expressed spots and 10 spots were chosen for further protein identification by LC-MS analysis. Several proteins were later identified as vimentin, galectin-1, high mobility group protein B2, clathrin, tropomyosin, heterogenous nuclear ribonucleoprotein and peroxiredoxin-2. Search Tool for Interactions of Chemicals (STITCH) analysis suggested that oxidative stress induced by 6-OHDA involved carbohydrate metabolism in SH-SY5Y via a lactose metabolic pathway. Our results raise the possibility that hGSTO1 modulates the functions of many proteins that play a role in the degenerative cell response of a Parkinson's model.

Nevirapine induced mitochondrial dysfunction in HepG2 cells

Nevirapine (NVP) is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor frequently used in combination with other antiretroviral agents for highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) of patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). However NVP can cause serious, life-threatening complications. Hepatotoxicity is one of the most severe adverse effects, particularly in HIV patients with chronic hepatitis C virus co-infection as these patients can develop liver toxicity after a relatively short course of treatment. However, the mechanism of NVP-associated hepatotoxicity remains unclear. This study sought to investigate the effect of NVP on protein expression in liver cells using a proteomic approach. HepG2 cells were treated or not treated with NVP and proteins were subsequently resolved by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. A total of 33 differentially regulated proteins were identified, of which nearly 40% (13/33) were mitochondrial proteins. While no obvious differences were observed between NVP treated and untreated cells after staining mitochondria with mitotracker, RT-PCR expression analysis of three mitochondrially encoded genes showed all were significantly up-regulated in NVP treated cells. Mitochondrial dysfunction was observed in response to treatment even with slightly sub-optimal therapeutic treatment concentrations of NVP. This study shows that NVP induces mitochondrial dysregulation in HepG2 cells.

Identification of novel biomarkers for adult-onset-immunodeficiency (AOID) syndrome using serum proteomics

OBJECTIVE

To identify the candidate protein biomarkers of adult-onset-immunodeficiency (AOID) syndrome using serum proteomics.

METHODS

Screening and verification phases were performed in the study. A total of 97 serum samples were classified into three groups: AOID patients with opportunistic infections (active AOID), AOID patients without opportunistic infections (inactive AOID), and healthy control. In the screening phase, pooled sera collected from patients and healthy control in each group were separated by 2D-gel electrophoresis, analyzed for differentially expressed proteins and identified for biomarkers using LC/MS. In the verification phase, the protein candidates were selected for confirmation by western blotting.

RESULTS

The analysis revealed 35 differentially expressed proteins. Three proteins including haptoglobin, gelsolin, and transthyretin, were selected for verification. The results showed that the levels of haptoglobin in both active and inactive AOID groups were significantly higher than that in the control group, while the levels of gelsolin in the active AOID group were significantly lower than that in the inactive AOID group. The level of transthyretin in the active AOID group was also significantly lower than that in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

The comparison of serum proteins between the three groups revealed three candidates which are related to chronic inflammatory diseases. Haptoglobin and transthyretin biomarkers could be applied in clinical assessment for monitor of disease outcome, including for the study of AOID pathogenesis.

Comparison of in-house HIV-1 genotypic drug resistant test with commercial HIV-1 genotypic test kit

Background: The use of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has become a standard of care in the treatment of HIV infection. However, antiretroviral drug resistance occurs in a substantial number of patients. In resource-limited settings, genotypic resistance assay using a commercial kit is costly.

Objective: Focus on the validation of an in-house HIV-1 specific genotypic drug resistance assay in Thai patients failing cART.

Materials and methods: Results of HIV-1 genotypic drug resistance assay was evaluated by comparing an inhouse method to a commercial test. The TRUGENE HIV-1 genotyping kit was used in 79 plasma specimens (49 from HIV patients failing cART therapy and 30 from proficiency testing panels).

Results: The results from the in-house assay were comparable to those obtained from the TRUGENE HIV-1 genotyping kit with >99.0% codon-to-codon agreement. The lower limit of detection by the in-house assay was approximately 100 copies/mL of HIV-1 RNA. In addition, this in-house assay would allow testing of samples from patients infected with HIV-1 subtype other than B.

Conclusion: The in-house HIV-1 genotypic drug resistance assay may be used as an alternative to commercial kits, particularly in resource limited settings.

Nevirapine induces apoptosis in liver (HepG2) cells

OBJECTIVE

To generate insights into the mechanism of NVP induced hepatotoxicity.

METHODS

Liver (HepG2) cells were cultured with various concentrations of NVP. This cell line was chosen because it has low expression of cytochrome P450, allowing evaluation of the effects of NVP rather than specific metabolites. Cytotoxicity was determined using a proliferation assay and cell numbers were monitored using trypan blue exclusion assay for long term culture experiments and apoptosis induction was determined by morphological and biochemical investigation.

RESULTS

HepG2 cells treated with the highest concentration of NVP tested (819 μM) initially showed a rounded morphology and all cells had died by week three of exposure. Nuclear condensation and fragmentation, increased Annexin V/propidium iodide staining and caspase 9 activation all supported the induction of apoptosis in HepG2 cells in response to NVP treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a clear induction of apoptosis in response to NVP which suggests that NVP has significant cytotoxicity, over and above any cytotoxicity of metabolites and may contribute directly to patient hepatotoxicity.

Interaction of Omega, Sigma, and Theta glutathione transferases with p38b mitogen-activated protein kinase from the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are a diverse family of phase II detoxification enzymes found in almost all organisms. Besides playing a major role in the detoxification of xenobiotic and toxic compounds, GSTs are also involved in the regulation of mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinase signal transduction by interaction with proteins in the pathway. An in vitro study was performed for Theta, Omega, Sigma GSTs and their interaction with MAP kinase p38b protein from the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster Meigen (Diptera: Drosophilidae). The study included the effects of all five Omega class GSTs (DmGSTO1, DmGSTO2a, DmGSTO2b, DmGSTO3, DmGSTO4), all five Theta class GSTs (DmGSTT1, DmGSTT2, DmGSTT3a, DmGSTT3b, DmGSTT4), and one Sigma class glutathione transferase on the activity of Drosophila p38b, including the reciprocal effect of this kinase protein on glutathione transferase activity. It was found that DmGSTT2, DmGSTT3b, DmGSTO1, and DmGSTO3 activated p38b significantly. Substrate specificities of GSTs were also altered after co-incubation with p38b. Although p38b activated DmGSTO1, DmGSTO2a, and DmGSTT2, it inhibited DmGSTT3b and DmGSTO3 activity toward xenobiotic and physiological substrates tested. These results suggest a novel link between Omega and Theta GSTs with the p38b MAP kinase pathway.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase p38b interaction with delta class glutathione transferases from the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster

Glutathione transferases (GSTs) are a family of multifunctional enzymes involved in xenobiotic biotransformation, drug metabolism, and protection against oxidative damage. The p38b mitogen-activated protein kinase is involved in cellular stress response. This study screened interactions between Drosophila melanogaster Meigen (Diptera: Drosophilidae) Delta class glutathione transferases (DmGSTs) and the D. melanogaster p38b MAPK. Therefore, 12 DmGSTs and p38b kinase were obtained as recombinant proteins. The study showed that DmGSTD8 and DmGSTD11b significantly increased p38b activity toward ATF2 and jun, which are transcription factor substrates. DmGSTD3 and DmGSTD5 moderately increased p38b activity for jun. In addition, GST activity in the presence of p38b was also measured. It was found that p38b affected substrate specificity toward CDNB (1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene) and DCNB (1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene) of several GST isoforms, i.e., DmGSTD2, DmGSTD5, DmGSTD8, and DmGSTD11b. The interaction of a GST and p38b can affect the substrate specificity of either enzyme, which suggests induced conformational changes affecting catalysis. Similar interactions do not occur for all the Delta enzymes and p38b, which suggests that these interactions could be specific.

Frequencies of IL10 SNP genotypes by multiplex PCR-SSP and their association with viral load and CD4 counts in HIV-1-infected Thais

BACKGROUND

Interleukin (IL)-10 is an immunoregulatory cytokine, levels of which can be influenced by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the promoter. Some, but not all previous studies have shown associations of IL10 SNPs with HIV-1 disease progression, using markers such as viral load or CD4 count. There are few data on IL10 SNP frequencies and HIV-1 disease in regions where non-B HIV-1 subtypes predominate.

OBJECTIVE

To determine genotypes, haplotypes, allele frequencies and associations with markers of HIV-1 disease progression of ILO SNPs.

METHODS

A new multiplexed PCR-SSP assay to detect IL10 SNPs at positions -1082, -819 and -592 was developed and used to determine genotypes and haplotypes in 244 HIV-1 CRF01_AE-infected northern Thais having a median time since HIV-1 infection of 2.7 years.

RESULTS

At position -1082 of IL10, AA genotype and A allele were the most common (87.3% and 93.2%, respectively). The -819 CT and -592 CA genotypes were the most prevalent (44.3%), and -819T and -592A were the most prevalent alleles (64.8%). The ATA/ATA was the most common genotype (42.6%) with the most prevalent haplotype of ATA (64.7%). No associations of any of the three ILO SNPs with CD4+ or CD8+ T cell counts or with viral load were found.

CONCLUSIONS

This first report of IL10-1082A, -819T and the IL10-592A allele frequencies in HIV-l-infected Thais shows the highest frequencies in HIV-l-infected persons worldwide. The lack of association of IL10 SNPs with CD4+ T cell count and viral load suggest that other genes may influence these markers in HIV-l-infected Thais.

Expression and characterization of three new glutathione transferases, an epsilon (AcGSTE2-2), omega (AcGSTO1-1), and theta (AcGSTT1-1) from Anopheles cracens (Diptera: Culicidae), a major Thai malaria vector

Glutathione transferases (GSTs) (E.C.2.5.1.18) are multifunctional enzymes involved in the detoxification of many exogenous and endogenous compounds. This study aimed to characterize several new GSTs from Anopheles cracens, a major Thai malaria vector formerly known as Anopheles dirus. The three recombinant enzymes obtained were from the epsilon, theta and omega classes. They showed 80-93% identity to orthologous An. gambiae GSTs. AcGSTE2-2 possessed peroxidase activity that cannot be detected for the An. gambiae AgGSTE2-2. AcGSTT1-1 had high activity toward several substrates that are specific for mammalian theta class. The AcGSTO1-1 can use 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, dichloroacetic acid, and hydroxyethyl disulfide substrates. The enzymes bound but did not metabolize the organophosphate temephos. The epsilon AcGSTE2-2 functioned as a peroxidase and DDT metabolizing enzyme. The theta AcGSTT1-1 functioned not only as peroxidase but also acted as a binding protein for organophosphates. The omega GST had thiol transferase activity suggesting a role in oxidative stress response.

Intra-subunit residue interactions from the protein surface to the active site of glutathione S-transferase AdGSTD3-3 impact on structure and enzyme properties

Structural residues are one of the major factors that modulate the catalytic specificity as well as having a role in stability of the glutathione S-transferases (GST). To understand how residues remote from the active site can affect enzymatic properties, four mutants, His144Ala, Val147Leu, Val147Ala and Arg96Ala, were generated. The selected residues appear to be in a putative intra-subunit interaction pathway from the exterior Asp150 to the active site Arg66 of AdGSTD3-3. The analysis of the four mutants suggested that the interaction formed between Asp150 and His144 is required for the packing of the hydrophobic core in domain 2. Mutations of both Asp150 and His144 impacted upon enzymatic properties. Two Val147 mutants also showed contribution to packing and support of the N-capping box motif by demonstrating shorter half-lives. The planar guanidinium of Arg96 is in a stacked geometry with the face of the aromatic ring of Phe140 in a cation-pi interaction. The Arg96 also interacts with several other residues one of which, Asp100, is in the active site. These interactions restrict movement of the residues in this region and as the data demonstrates when Arg96 is changed have dramatic impact on stability and enzyme properties. These findings indicate the significance of the roles played by residue interactions which can cause conformational changes and thereby influence the catalytic activity and stability of an enzyme.

Non-active site residues Cys69 and Asp150 affected the enzymatic properties of glutathione S-transferase AdGSTD3-3

To elucidate how non-active site residues support the catalytic function, five selected residues of AdGSTD3-3 isoenzyme were changed to AdGSTD1-1 residues by means of site-directed mutagenesis. Analysis of the kinetic parameters indicated that Cys69Gln and Asp150Ser showed marked differences in Vmax and Km compared with the wild type enzyme. Both residues were characterized further by replacement with several amino acids. Both the Cys69 and Asp150 mutants showed differences with several GST substrates and inhibitors including affecting the interactions with pyrethroid insecticides. Cys69 and Asp150 mutants possessed a decreased half-life relative to the wild type enzyme. The Asp150 mutation appears to affect neighboring residues that support two important structural motifs, the N-capping box and the hydrophobic staple motif. The Cys69 mutants appeared to have subtle conformational changes near the active site residues resulting in different conformations and also directly affecting the active site region. The results show the importance of the cumulative effects of residues remote from the active site and demonstrate that minute changes in tertiary structure play a role in modulating enzyme activity.

A Non-Active Site Residue, Cysteine 69, Of Glutathione S-Transferase Adgstd3-3 Has A Role In Stability And Catalytic Function

The Cys69 residue of an Anopheles dirus glutathione S-transferase isoform (adGSTD3-3), was characterized to elucidate its contribution in both catalysis and structural support. Nine mutants were generated at this position by replacing the residue with polar, non-polar and charged residues. The polar residues changed the Vm of the enzymes. With non-polar residues, the enzymes were unable to fold and were expressed in the insoluble inclusion form. With charged residues, the soluble enzyme yields were only 3% of the wild type protein. Molecular dynamics simulation also was performed to understand the changes in the enzyme structure. These findings are additional evidence of the importance of structural residues that affect the enzymatic properties such as Vm, Km and enzyme specificity.

Male viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand

We evaluated the association between HIV-1 RNA copies/mL in men and heterosexual transmission to their female partners among 493 couples in Thailand. Husbands were identified as HIV-positive when they were screened as blood donors; nearly all were infected with HIV subtype E. Wives had no known risks for HIV infection other than sex with their husbands. In multivariate analysis, each log10 increment of HIV RNA in the man was associated with an 81% increased rate of HIV transmission to his wife (odds ratio = 1.81, 95% confidence interval: 1.33-2.48). No transmission occurred at viral loads below 1094 copies/mL, and a dose-response effect was seen with increasing viral load in the man. In multivariate analysis, a history of a sexually transmitted disease in the man or woman, longer duration of hormonal contraceptive use, and the woman's onset of sexual activity at less than 20 years of age were also associated with increased seropositivity of the wife.