Supplementing flaxseed meal with sucrose, flaxseed oil, or both: Effect on milk enterolactone, ruminal microbiota profile, production performance, and nutrient utilization in dairy cows

Flaxseed is the richest source of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, which is converted by ruminal microorganisms primarily to the mammalian lignan enterolactone. Our objective was to investigate the effect of diets containing soybean meal or flaxseed meal (FM) supplemented with sucrose, flaxseed oil, or both on milk enterolactone concentration and yield, diversity and relative abundance of ruminal bacterial taxa, ruminal fermentation profile, production performance, milk fatty acid (FA) yield, and nutrient utilization in dairy cows. Sixteen Holstein cows [8 multiparous (4 ruminally-cannulated) and 8 primiparous] averaging (mean ± SD) 134 ± 54.1 DIM and 679 ± 78.9 kg of BW in the beginning of the study were assigned to treatment sequences in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design. Each experimental period lasted 25 d with 18 d for diet adaptation and 7 d for data and sample collection. Diets were formulated to contain a 60:40 forage:concentrate ratio and included (DM basis): 1) 8% soybean meal and 23% ground corn (SBM), 2) 15% FM, 10.7% ground corn, and 5% sucrose (FLX+S), 3) 15% FM, 15.4% ground corn, and 3% flaxseed oil (FLX+O), and 4) 15% FM, 10.2% ground corn, 5% sucrose, and 3% flaxseed oil (FLX+SO). Compared with SBM, the concentration and yield of milk enterolactone increased in cows fed the FM diets, but did not differ among FLX+S, FLX+O, and FLX+SO. The relative abundances of the phyla Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobiota, and Actinobacteriota and those of the bacterial genera Lachnospiraceae NK3A20 group, Eubacterium coprostanoligenes group, Anaeromusa-Anaeroarcus, WCHB1-41, and p-251-o5 decreased, whereas Prevotella and NK4A214 group increased when comparing SBM against at least 1 diet containing FM. Furthermore, the relative abundances of Firmicutes and Actinobacteriota and those of Prevotella, Lachnospiraceae NK3A20 group, Eubacterium coprostanoligenes group, Acetitomaculum, Lachnospiraceae unclassified, NK4A214 group, and Anaeromusa-Anaeroarcus changed (increased or decreased) across the FLX+S, FLX+O, and FLX+SO diets. However, all these changes in the relative abundance of the ruminal bacterial taxa were not conclusively associated with the effect of diets on milk enterolactone. Diets did not affect ruminal pH and concentrations of NH3-N and total VFA. Dry matter intake and yields of milk, milk fat, and milk true protein all decreased in cows fed FLX+O or FLX+SO. Yields of milk total odd-chain FA, branched-chain FA, total < 16C FA, and total 16C FA all decreased with feeding FLX+O and FLX+SO. The apparent total-tract digestibilities of DM and OM were lowest in the FLX+S and FLX+O diets, with CP and ADF digestibilities lowest in cows receiving FLX+S or FLX+O, respectively. Urinary excretion of total N was lowest with feeding SBM. Contrarily, diets did not affect the urinary excretion of total purine derivatives. In brief, despite the effect of diets on the relative abundance of several ruminal microbiota phyla and genera, we were unable to conclusively associate these changes with increased milk enterolactone in FM-containing diets versus SBM.

Feeding alfalfa-grass or red clover-grass mixture baleage: Effect on milk yield and composition, ruminal fermentation and microbiota taxa relative abundance, and nutrient utilization in dairy cows

Our goal was to investigate the effect of diets containing baleages harvested from alfalfa-grass or red clover-grass mixture on production performance, ruminal fermentation and microbiota taxa relative abundance, milk fatty acid profile, and nutrient utilization in dairy cows. Twenty Jersey cows (18 multiparous and 2 primiparous) averaging (mean ± SD) 148 ± 45.2 days in milk and 483 ± 65.4 kg of body weight in the beginning of the study were used in a randomized complete block design with repeated measures over time. The experiment lasted 9 wk, with a 2 wk covariate period followed by 7 wk of data and sample collection (wk 4 and 7 used in the statistical analyses). Cows were fed diets containing (dry matter basis) 35% of a concentrate mash and the following forage sources: (1) 65% second- and third-cut (32.5% each) alfalfa-grass mixture baleages (ALF) or (2) 65% second- and third-cut (32.5% each) red clover-grass mixture baleages (RC). Diets did not affect dry matter intake, milk yield, and concentrations of milk fat and true protein. In contrast, milk fat yield tended to decrease and energy-corrected milk yield decreased with feeding RC versus ALF. The apparent total-tract digestibilities of dry matter, organic matter, and ash-free neutral detergent fiber, milk proportions of trans-10 18:1, cis-9,cis-12,cis-15 18:3, and total n-3 fatty acids, ruminal molar proportion of acetate, and plasma concentrations of Leu, Phe, and Val all increased in RC versus ALF. Diet × week interactions were found for several parameters, most notably ruminal molar proportions of propionate and butyrate, ruminal NH3-N, milk urea N, plasma urea N, and plasma His concentrations, urinary N excretion, enteric CH4 production, and all energy efficiency variables. Specifically, ruminal NH3-N and plasma urea N concentrations, urinary excretion of N, and CH4 production decreased in cows fed RC in wk 4 but not in wk 7. Milk urea N concentration decreased and that of plasma His increased with feeding RC during wk 4 and 7, although the magnitude of treatments difference varied between the sampling periods. Efficiency of energy utilization calculated as milk energy/metabolizable energy decreased and that of tissue energy/ME increased in RC versus ALF cows in wk 4, suggesting that ME was portioned toward tissue and not milk in the RC diet. Interactions were also observed for the relative abundance of the rumen bacterial phyla Verrucomicrobiota and Fibrobacterota, with cows offered RC showing greater values than those receiving ALF in wk 4 but no differences in wk 7. Several diet × week interactions were detected in the present study implying short-term treatment responses and warranting further investigations.

Replacing ground corn with soyhulls plus palmitic acid in low metabolizable protein diets with or without rumen-protected amino acids: Effects on production and nutrient utilization in dairy cows

We previously observed that diets with reduced starch concentration decreased yields of milk and milk protein in dairy cows fed low metabolizable protein diets. Supplementation of reduced-starch diets with a lipid source may attenuate or eliminate production losses. Our objective was to investigate the effects of partially replacing ground corn with soyhulls plus a palmitic acid-enriched supplement on dry matter (DM) intake, milk yield and composition, plasma AA concentration, and N and energy utilization in cows fed low metabolizable protein diets (mean = -68 g/d balance) with or without rumen-protected Met, Lys, and His (RP-MLH). Sixteen multiparous Holstein cows averaging (mean ± standard deviation) 112 ± 28 d in milk, 724 ± 44 kg of body weight, and 46 ± 5 kg/d of milk in the beginning of the study were used in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Each period lasted 21 d, consisting of 14 d for diet adaptation and 7 d for data and sample collection. Diets were fed as follows: (1) high starch (HS), (2) HS plus RP-MLH (HS+AA), (3) reduced starch plus a palmitic acid-enriched supplement (RSPA), and (4) RSPA plus RP-MLH (RSPA+AA). The HS diet contained (DM basis) 26% ground corn and 7% soyhulls, and the RSPA diet had 10% ground corn, 22% soyhulls, and 1.5% palmitic acid. The HS diet averaged (DM basis) 32.6% starch and 4% ether extract, while starch and ether extract concentrations of the RSPA diet were 21.7 and 5.9%, respectively. All 4 diets had (DM basis) 40% corn silage, 5% mixed-mostly grass haylage, 5% grass hay, and 50% concentrate. Diets did not affect DM intake and milk yield. Contrarily, feeding RSPA and RSPA+AA increased yields of energy-corrected milk (47.0 vs. 44.8 kg/d) and milk fat (1.65 vs. 1.50 kg/d) compared with HS and HS+AA. Milk fat concentration tended to decrease when RP-MLH was supplemented to HS, but no change was seen when added to RS (starch level × RP-MLH interaction). Milk and plasma urea N increased, and milk N efficiency decreased in cows fed RSPA and RSPA+AA versus HS and HS+AA. Apparent total-tract digestibilites of crude protein and neutral detergent fiber, as well as urinary urea N and total N excretion, were greater in cows offered RSPA and RSPA+AA than HS and HS+AA. Plasma Met and His concentrations increased with supplemental RP-MLH. Intake of gross energy and digestible energy and the output of urinary and milk energy were all greater with feeding RSPA and RSPA+AA versus HS and HS+AA. In summary, partially replacing ground corn with soyhulls plus palmitic acid in diets supplemented or not with RP-MLH increased milk fat yield and fiber digestibility and maintained DM intake and milk yield, but with decreased milk N efficiency and elevated urinary N excretion.

Supplementation of Ascophyllum nodosum meal and monensin: Effects on diversity and relative abundance of ruminal bacterial taxa and the metabolism of iodine and arsenic in lactating dairy cows

Previous research has shown that the brown seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum (ASCO) has antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and also increases milk I concentration. We aimed to investigate the effects of supplementing ASCO meal or monensin (MON) on ruminal fermentation, diversity and relative abundance of ruminal bacterial taxa, metabolism of I and As, and blood concentrations of thyroid hormones, antioxidant enzymes, and cortisol in lactating dairy cows. Five multiparous ruminally cannulated Jersey cows averaging (mean ± standard deviation) 102 ± 15 d in milk and 450 ± 33 kg of body weight at the beginning of the study were used in a Latin square design with 28-d periods (21 d for diet adaptation and 7 d for data and sample collection). Cows were fed ad libitum a basal diet containing (dry matter basis) 65% forage as haylage and corn silage and 35% concentrate and were randomly assigned to 1 of the following 5 dietary treatments: 0, 57, 113, or 170 g/d of ASCO meal, or 300 mg/d of MON. Supplements were placed directly into the rumen once daily after the morning feeding. Diets had no effect on ruminal pH and NH3-N concentration, which averaged 6.02 and 6.86 mg/dL, respectively. Total volatile fatty acid concentration decreased linearly in cows fed incremental amounts of ASCO meal. Supplementation with ASCO meal did not change the ruminal molar proportions of volatile fatty acids apart from butyrate, which responded quadratically with the lowest values observed at 56 and 113 g/d of ASCO supplementation. Compared with the control diet or diets containing ASCO meal, cows fed MON showed greater molar proportion of propionate. Diets did not affect the α diversity indices Shannon, Simpson, and Fisher for ruminal bacteria. However, feeding incremental levels of ASCO meal linearly decreased the relative abundance of Tenericutes in ruminal fluid. Monensin increased the relative abundance of the CAG:352 bacterial genus in ruminal fluid compared with the control diet. Linear increases in response to ASCO meal supplementation were observed for the concentrations and output of I in serum, milk, urine, and feces. Fecal excretion of As increased linearly in cows fed varying amounts of ASCO meal, but ASCO did not affect the concentration and secretion of As in milk. The plasma activities of the antioxidant enzymes and the serum concentrations of thyroid hormones did not change. In contrast, circulating cortisol decreased linearly in diets containing ASCO meal. The apparent total-tract digestibilities of dry matter, organic matter, and crude protein increased linearly with ASCO meal, but those of neutral and acid detergent fiber were not affected. In summary, feeding incremental amounts of ASCO meal decreased serum cortisol concentration, and increased I concentrations and output in serum, milk, feces, and urine.

Dietary starch level and rumen-protected methionine, lysine, and histidine: Effects on milk yield, nitrogen, and energy utilization in dairy cows fed diets low in metabolizable protein

Our objective was to investigate the interactions between starch level and rumen-protected Met, Lys, His (RP-MLH) on milk yield, plasma AA concentration, and nutrient utilization in dairy cows fed low metabolizable protein diets (mean = -119 g/d of metabolizable protein balance). Sixteen multiparous Holstein cows (138 ± 46 d in milk, 46 ± 6 kg/d in milk) were used in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Each period lasted 21 d with 14 d for diet adaptation and 7 d for data and sample collection. Dietary starch level varied by replacing (dry matter basis) pelleted beet pulp and soyhulls with ground corn resulting in the following treatments: (1) 20% pelleted beet pulp and 10% soyhulls (reduced starch = RS), (2) RS plus RP-MLH (RS+AA), (3) 30% ground corn (high starch = HS), and (4) HS plus RP-MLH (HS+AA). Dietary starch concentrations averaged 12.3 and 34.4% for RS and HS basal diets, respectively. Diets were supplemented with RP-MLH products to supply digestible Met, Lys, and His. Compared with RS and RS+AA diets, HS and HS+AA diets increased yields of milk (37.9 vs. 40.1 kg/d) and milk protein (1.07 vs. 1.16 kg/d) and decreased dry matter intake (25.9 vs. 25.2 kg/d), milk urea N (12.6 vs. 11.0 mg/dL), and plasma urea N (13.3 vs. 11.6 mg/dL). Milk N efficiency was greater in cows fed the HS and HS+AA than RS and RS+AA diets (28.9 vs. 25%), and RP-MLH supplementation improved milk true protein concentration. Starch level × RP-MLH interactions were observed for plasma concentrations of Arg and Lys, with RP-MLH being more effective to increase plasma Arg (+16%) and Lys (+23%) when supplemented to the RS than the HS basal diet. Replacing pelleted beet pulp and soyhulls with ground corn lowered the plasma concentrations of all essential AA except Met and Thr. In addition, the plasma concentrations of His and Met increased with RP-MLH. The apparent total-tract digestibilities of neutral and acid detergent fiber were lower, and those of starch and ether extract greater in cows offered the HS and HS+AA diets than RS and RS+AA diets. Urinary excretion of urea N decreased by replacing pelleted beet pulp and soyhulls with ground corn. Enteric CH₄ production, CH₄ yield, and CH₄ intensity all decreased in the HS and HS+AA versus RS and RS+AA diets. Diets did not affect the intakes of gross energy, metabolizable energy, and net energy of lactation. In contrast, digestible energy intake increased with feeding the RS and RS+AA diets, whereas CH₄ energy decreased in cows fed the HS and HS+AA diets. Supplementation with RP-MLH had no effect on energy utilization variables. Overall, the lack of interactions between dietary starch level and RP-MLH supplementation on most variables measured herein showed that the effects of starch intake and RP-MLH were independent or additive.

Symposium review: Comparisons of feed and milk nitrogen efficiency and carbon emissions in organic versus conventional dairy production systems

Evaluation of feed efficiency (FE; calculated as energy-corrected milk yield/dry matter intake) and milk nitrogen efficiency (MNE; calculated as milk N yield/N intake) is needed to help farmers make decisions regarding the economic and environmental sustainability of dairy farms. Our primary objective was to compare FE and MNE data obtained from studies conducted with organic versus conventional dairy cows. Specifically, 3 data sets were constructed to meet this goal: (1) the organic Jersey data set (ORG-JE) built with studies (n = 11) done at the University of New Hampshire Burley-Demeritt Organic Dairy Research Farm (Lee, NH), (2) the conventional Jersey data set (CON-JE) constructed using 19 experiments reported in the literature, and (3) the organic non-Jersey-breed (mostly Holstein, Swedish Red, and Norwegian Red) data set (ORG-NJE) created with 11 published studies. Comparisons were made between ORG-JE and CON-JE and between ORG-JE and ORG-NJE. A second objective was to compare the enteric methane (CH₄) emission data set from studies using organic Jerseys (n = 5) with those using conventional Jerseys (n = 4). Cows used in the ORG-JE data set had lower FE (-16%) and MNE (-15.5%) than cows used in the CON-JE counterpart, possibly because dry matter intake increased by an average of 10.4% in organic cows. Feed efficiency and MNE computed from cows belonging to the ORG-NJE data set were intermediate between ORG-JE and CON-JE. Measured CH₄ intensity (g/kg of energy-corrected milk) from cows in the ORG-JE CH₄ data set increased by 71% compared with that from cows in the CON-JE CH₄ data set. Estimated FE and enteric CH₄ emissions revealed that Wisconsin organic dairies with the heaviest reliance on forage sources and longest grazing time during the summer were the least feed efficient and emitted the greatest amount of CH₄ per kilogram of energy-corrected milk at the animal and whole-farm levels. Overall, the comparisons of FE, MNE, and enteric CH₄ emissions between organic and conventional dairies and within organic systems made in this symposium review should be interpreted cautiously because they are based on study means and small data sets. Research is needed to better characterize the performance, efficiency, profitability, and carbon emissions of forage-based organic dairies in the United States, including the fast-growing "grass-fed" segment, which relies exclusively on forage diets. The effect of large organic dairies on the economic and social sustainability of small and mid-size organic dairy operations nationwide also deserves further investigation.

Incremental amounts of rumen-protected histidine increase plasma and muscle histidine concentrations and milk protein yield in dairy cows fed a metabolizable protein-deficient diet

The dairy industry can benefit from low crude protein (CP) diets due to reduced N excretion, but shortages of Met, Lys, and His may limit milk protein synthesis. We studied the effect of incremental amounts of rumen-protected (RP)-His on plasma and muscle AA profile, nutrient utilization, and yields of milk and milk true protein in dairy cows. Eight multiparous Holstein cows (130 ± 30 d in milk) were randomly assigned to treatment sequences in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design with 28-d experimental periods. Treatments included a basal diet composed (dry matter basis) of 50% corn silage, 15% haylage, and 35% concentrate supplemented with 0, 82, 164, and 246 g/d of RP-His and 11 g/d of RP-Met. Milk, plasma, and muscle samples were collected weekly or every other week during all 4 periods, whereas spot urine and fecal grab samples were taken only in wk 4 of each period. Data were analyzed individually by week using linear, quadratic, and cubic orthogonal polynomials and repeated measures. Plasma His increased linearly with RP-His during wk 1 (30.3 to 57.2 µM) to wk 4 (33.2 to 63.1 µM). Plasma carnosine increased linearly with supplemental RP-His except in wk 2. No treatment effect was observed for plasma 3-methylhistidine except a quadratic effect in wk 3. Inclusion of RP-His showed linear effects on muscle His in wk 2 (20.1 to 32.5 µM) and 4 (20.3 to 35.5 µM). Whereas muscle anserine and carnosine concentrations were not affected by treatments in wk 4, anserine responded quadratically and carnosine showed a trend for a quadratic response to RP-His in wk 2. During wk 4, treatments did not affect urinary excretion of total purine derivatives, as well as dry matter intake and milk concentrations of fat and true protein. In contrast, milk yield tended to increase linearly (31.2 to 32.7 kg/d) and milk true protein yield responded linearly (0.93 to 0.98 kg/d) and tended to increase quadratically to RP-His supplementation in wk 4. Also, milk urea-N (11.7 to 12.9 mg/dL) and urinary excretion of urea-N (23.7 to 27.0% of N intake) increased linearly with feeding RP-His in wk 4. Overall, RP-His was effective to enhance plasma and muscle concentrations of His and milk protein synthesis. Elevated milk urea-N and urinary excretion of urea-N suggest that plasma His may have exceeded the requirement with excess N converted to urea in the liver. Future research is needed to determine the bioavailability of RP-His supplements to improve the accuracy of diet formulation for AA.

Effects of rumen-undegradable protein on intake, performance, and mammary gland development in prepubertal and pubertal dairy heifers

The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of different amounts of rumen-undegradable protein (RUP) on intake, N balance, performance, mammary gland development, carcass traits, and hormonal status of Holstein heifers at different physiological stages (PS). Sixteen prepubertal (PRE) heifers (initial BW = 106 ± 7.6 kg; age = 4.3 ± 0.46 mo) and 16 pubertal (PUB) heifers (initial BW = 224 ± 7.9 kg; age = 12.6 ± 0.45 mo) were used in an experiment over a period of 84 d. Four diets with increasing RUP contents (38, 44, 51, and 57% of dietary crude protein) and heifers at 2 PS (PRE or PUB) were used in a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments in a completely randomized design. Throughout the experiment, 2 digestibility trials were performed over 5 consecutive days (starting at d 36 and 78) involving feed and ort sampling and spot collections of feces and urine. At d 0 and 83, body ultrasound images were obtained for real-time carcass trait evaluation. The mammary gland was ultrasonically scanned at d 0 and every 3 wk during the experiment. Blood samples were taken at d 0 and 84 to determine serum concentrations of progesterone, estrogen, insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), and insulin. No interaction between PS and the level of RUP was found for any trait. Apparent digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, and neutral detergent fiber corrected for ash and protein was not affected by RUP level but was lower for PRE compared with PUB heifers. Sorting against neutral detergent fiber corrected for ash and protein (tendency only) and for crude protein was greater for PUB than PRE heifers. Pubertal heifers had greater average daily gain (905 vs. 505 g/d) and N retention (25.9 vs. 12.5 g/d) than PRE heifers. In addition, average daily gain and N retention were greatest at 51% RUP of dietary protein. Mammary ultrasonography indicated no effects of RUP amounts on mammary gland composition, whereas PRE heifers had greater pixel values than PUB, indicating higher contents of fat rather than protein in the mammary glands of PRE heifers. Serum progesterone and IGF-I concentration was affected only by PS, and PRE heifers had greater values of progesterone and IGF-I concentrations than PUB heifers. Serum insulin concentration was unaffected by PS but tended to be higher at 51% of RUP. In conclusion, an RUP level of 51% increases body weight, average daily gain, feed efficiency, and N retention in heifers regardless of the PS. In addition, PRE heifers have a lower sorting ability and reduced intake, total-tract digestibility, and N retention. They also have higher amounts of fat in their mammary glands, even at moderate growth rates.

Effects of pregnancy and feeding level on carcass and meat quality traits of Nellore cows

Carcass and meat quality traits of 16 pregnant and 5 non-pregnant cows fed at 1.2 times maintenance and 16 pregnant and 6 non-pregnant fed ad libitum were evaluated. Pregnancy did not affect final body weight (FBW; P=0.0923), cold carcass yield (CCY; P=0.0513), longissimus muscle area (LMA; P=0.8260), rib fat thickness (RFT; P=0.1873) and shear force (WBSF; P=0.9707). A lower FBW (P=0.0028), LMA (P=0.0048) and RFT (P=0.0001) were observed in feed restricted cows. However, no differences were found for CCY (P=0.7243) and WBSF (P=0.0759) among feeding level groups. These data suggests that carcass and meat quality traits are not affected by pregnancy status in Nellore cows. Moreover, although cows experiencing feed restriction did have reduced deposition of subcutaneous fat and lean tissue, there were no major impacts on meat quality traits.