Cardiovascular and respiratory profiles during the sleep-wake cycle of rats previously submitted to chronic intermittent hypoxia

NEW FINDINGS

What is the central question of this study? Chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) causes increased arterial pressure (AP), sympathetic overactivity and changes in expiratory modulation of sympathetic activity. However, changes in the short-term sleep-wake cycle pattern after CIH and their potential impact on cardiorespiratory parameters have not been reported previously. What is the main finding and its importance? Exposure to CIH for 10 days elevates AP in wakefulness and sleep but does not cause major changes in short-term sleep-wake cycle pattern. A higher incidence of muscular expiratory activity was observed in rats exposed to CIH only during wakefulness, indicating that active expiration is not required for the increase in AP in rats submitted to CIH.

ABSTRACT

Chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) increases arterial pressure (AP) and changes sympathetic-respiratory coupling. However, the alterations in the sleep-wake cycle after CIH and their potential impact on cardiorespiratory parameters remain unknown. Here, we evaluated whether CIH-exposed rats present changes in their short-term sleep-wake cycle pattern and in cardiorespiratory parameters. Male Wistar rats (∼250 g) were divided into CIH and control groups. The CIH rats were exposed to 8 h day^-1 of cycles of normoxia (fraction of inspired O₂  = 0.208, 5 min) followed by hypoxia (fraction of inspired O₂  = 0.06, 30-40 s) for 10 days. One day after CIH, electrocorticographic activity, cervical EMG, AP and heart rate were recorded for 3 h. Plethysmographic recordings were collected for 2 h. A subgroup of control and CIH rats also had the diaphragm and oblique abdominal muscle activities recorded. Chronic intermittent hypoxia did not alter the time for sleep onset, total time awake, durations of rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) sleep and number of REM episodes in the 3 h recordings. However, a significant increase in the duration of REM episodes was observed. The AP and heart rate were increased in all phases of the cycle in rats exposed to CIH. Respiratory frequency and ventilation were similar between groups in all phases, but tidal volume was increased during NREM and REM sleep in rats exposed to CIH. An increase in the incidence of active expiration during wakefulness was observed in rats exposed to CIH. The data show that CIH-related hypertension is not caused by changes in the sleep-wake cycle and suggest that active expiration is not required for the increase in AP in freely moving rats exposed to CIH.

Enhancement of excitatory transmission in NTS neurons projecting to ventral medulla of rats exposed to sustained hypoxia is blunted by minocycline

KEY POINTS

Rats subjected to sustained hypoxia (SH) present increases in arterial pressure (AP) and in glutamatergic transmission in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) neurons sending projections to ventrolateral medulla (VLM). Treatment with minocycline, a microglial inhibitor, attenuated the increase in AP in response to SH. The increase in the amplitude of glutamatergic postsynaptic currents in the NTS-VLM neurons, induced by postsynaptic mechanisms, was blunted by minocycline treatment. The number of microglial cells was increased in the NTS of vehicle-treated SH rats but not in the NTS of minocycline-treated rats. The data show that microglial recruitment/proliferation induced by SH is associated with the enhancement of excitatory neurotransmission in NTS-VLM neurons, which may contribute to the observed increase in AP.

ABSTRACT

Short-term sustained hypoxia (SH) produces significant autonomic and respiratory adjustments and triggers activation of microglia, the resident immune cells in the brain. SH also enhances glutamatergic neurotransmission in the NTS. Here we evaluated the role of microglial activation induced by SH on the cardiovascular changes and mainly on glutamatergic neurotransmission in NTS neurons sending projections to the ventrolateral medulla (NTS-VLM), using a microglia inhibitor (minocycline). Direct measurement of arterial pressure (AP) in freely moving rats showed that SH (24 h, fraction of inspired oxygen ( F I , O 2 ) 0.1) in vehicle and minocycline (30 mg/kg i.p. for 3 days)-treated groups produced a significant increase in AP in relation to control groups under normoxic conditions, but this increase was significantly lower in minocycline-treated rats. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings revealed that the active properties of the membrane were comparable among the groups. Nevertheless, the amplitudes of glutamatergic postsynaptic currents, evoked by tractus solitarius stimulation, were increased in NTS-VLM neurons of SH rats. Changes in asynchronous glutamatergic currents indicated that the observed increase in amplitude was due to postsynaptic mechanisms. These changes were blunted in the SH group previously treated with minocycline. Using immunofluorescence, we found that the number of microglial cells was increased in the NTS of vehicle-treated SH rats but not in the NTS neurons of minocycline-treated rats. Our data support the concept that microglial activation induced by SH is associated with the enhancement of excitatory neurotransmission in NTS-VLM neurons, which may contribute to the increase in AP observed in this experimental model.

Astrocytic modulation of glutamatergic synaptic transmission is reduced in NTS of rats submitted to short-term sustained hypoxia

Sustained hypoxia (SH) activates chemoreceptors to produce cardiovascular and respiratory responses to bring the arterial partial pressure of O₂ back to the physiological range. We evaluated the effect of SH (fraction of inspired O₂ = 0.10, 24 h) on glutamatergic synaptic transmission and the interaction neuron-astrocyte in neurons of the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS). Tractus solitarius (TS) fiber stimulation induced glutamatergic currents in neurons and astrocytes. SH increased α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid/kainate (AMPA/kainate) [-183 ± 122 pA (n = 10) vs. -353 ± 101 pA (n = 10)] and N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) current amplitude [61 ± 10 pA (n = 7) vs. 102 ± 37 pA (n = 10)]. To investigate the effects of SH, we used fluoroacetate (FAC), an astrocytic inhibitor, which revealed an excitatory modulation on AMPA/kainate current and an inhibitory modulation of NMDA current in control rats. SH blunted the astrocytic modulation of AMPA [artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF): -353 ± 101 pA vs. aCSF + FAC: -369 ± 76 pA (n = 10)] and NMDA currents [aCSF: 102 ± 37 pA vs. aCSF + FAC: 108 ± 32 pA (n = 10)]. SH increased AMPA current density [control: -6 ± 3.5 pA/pF (n = 6) vs. SH: -20 ± 12 pA/pF (n = 7)], suggesting changes in density, conductance, or affinity of AMPA receptors. SH produced no effect on astrocytic resting membrane potential, input resistance, and AMPA/kainate current. We conclude that SH decreased the neuron-astrocyte interaction at the NTS level, facilitating the glutamatergic transmission, which may contribute to the enhancement of cardiovascular and respiratory responses to baro- and chemoreflexes activation in SH rats. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Using an electrophysiological approach, we have shown that in nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) from control rats, astrocytes modulate the AMPA and NMDA currents in NTS neurons, changing their excitability. Sustained hypoxia (SH) increased both glutamatergic currents in NTS neurons due to 1) a reduction in the astrocytic modulation and 2) an increase in the density of AMPA receptors. These new findings show the importance of neuron-astrocyte modulation in the excitatory synaptic transmission in NTS of control and SH rats.

Hyperexcitability and plasticity induced by sustained hypoxia on rectus abdominis motoneurons

KEY POINTS

Acute hypoxia induces active expiration in rectus abdominis (RA) muscles in conscious freely moving rats, although its overall contribution is smaller than in internal oblique (IO) muscles. Tonically active and silent RA motoneurons were identified in in vitro preparations of rat spinal cords. Sustained hypoxia (SH) increased the synaptic strength and induced morphological changes in tonically active RA motoneurons. Expiratory RA motoneurons were recorded in the in situ preparation and SH enhanced both the excitability and the synaptic transmission in those firing during the stage 2 expiration. The present study contributes to a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in SH recruitment of RA motoneurons to induce active expiration in rats.

ABSTRACT

Rectus abdominis (RA) motoneurons translate the complex respiratory brainstem inputs into effective muscle contractions. Despite their fundamental role in respiration, their functional and morphological properties are not fully understood. In the present study, we investigated for the first time the contribution of RA muscle to active expiration and characterized RA motoneurons regarding their electrical, molecular and morphological profiles in control rats and in rats submitted to sustained hypoxia (SH), which induces chronic recruitment of abdominal muscles. Electromyographic experiments in conscious freely moving control rats and SH rats showed that RA contributes to active expiration induced by acute hypoxia, although its contribution is smaller than in internal oblique muscles. in vitro whole-cell patch clamp recordings from RA motoneurons revealed two populations of cells: tonically active and silent. SH induced hyperexcitability in the tonically active cells by changing their action potential properties, and EPSCs. Three-dimensional morphological reconstructions of these cells showed that SH increased the dendritic complexity, stimulated the appearance of dendrite spines, and increased the somatic area and volume. Physiologically identified RA motoneurons, firing in two distinct phases of expiration, were recorded in the brainstem-spinal cord in situ preparation of rats. SH increased the firing frequency and EPSCs of neurons firing during stage 2 expiration. Taken together, our results show that RA motoneurons reconfigure their biophysical properties, morphology and synaptic strength to produce an appropriate expiratory drive in response to SH in rats.

Firing properties of ventral medullary respiratory neurons in sino-aortic denervated rats

NEW FINDINGS

What is the central question of this study? After sino-aortic denervation (SAD), rats present normal levels of mean arterial pressure (MAP), high MAP variability and changes in breathing. However, mechanisms involved in SAD-induced respiratory changes and their impact on the modulation of sympathetic activity remain unclear. Herein, we characterized the firing frequency of medullary respiratory neurons after SAD. What is the main finding and its importance? Sino-aortic denervation-induced prolonged inspiration was associated with a reduced interburst frequency of pre-inspiratory/inspiratory neurons and an increased long-term variability of late inspiratory neurons, but no changes were observed in the ramp-inspiratory and post-inspiratory neurons. This imbalance in the respiratory network might contribute to the modulation of sympathetic activity after SAD.

ABSTRACT

In previous studies, we documented that after sino-aortic denervation (SAD) in rats there are significant changes in the breathing pattern, but no significant changes in sympathetic activity and mean arterial pressure compared with sham-operated rats. However, the neural mechanisms involved in the respiratory changes after SAD and the extent to which they might contribute to the observed normal sympathetic activity and mean arterial pressure remain unclear. Here, we hypothesized that after SAD, rats present with changes in the firing frequency of the ventral medullary inspiratory and post-inspiratory neurons. To test this hypothesis, male Wistar rats underwent SAD or sham surgery and 3 days later were surgically prepared for an in situ experiment. The duration of inspiration significantly increased in SAD rats. During inspiration, the total firing frequency of ramp-inspiratory, pre-inspiratory/inspiratory and late-inspiratory neurons was not different between groups. During post-inspiration, the total firing frequency of post-inspiratory neurons was also not different between groups. Furthermore, the data demonstrate a reduced interburst frequency of pre-inspiratory/inspiratory neurons and an increased long-term variability of late-inspiratory neurons in SAD compared with sham-operated rats. These findings indicate that the SAD-induced prolongation of inspiration was not accompanied by alterations in the total firing frequency of the ventral medullary respiratory neurons, but it was associated with changes in the long-term variability of late-inspiratory neurons. We suggest that the timing imbalance in the respiratory network in SAD rats might contribute to the modulation of presympathetic neurons after removal of baroreceptor afferents.

Changes in the inspiratory pattern contribute to modulate the sympathetic activity in sino-aortic denervated rats

NEW FINDINGS

What is the central question of this study? Sino-aortic denervated (SAD) rats present normal levels of sympathetic activity and mean arterial pressure. However, neural mechanisms regulating the sympathetic activity in the absence of arterial baroreceptors remain unclear. Considering that respiration modulates the sympathetic activity, we hypothesize that changes in the respiratory network contribute to keep the sympathetic outflow in the normal range after removal of arterial baroreceptors. What is the main finding and its importance? Despite longer inspiration observed in SAD rats, the respiratory-sympathetic coupling is working within a normal range of variation. These findings suggest that in the absence of arterial baroreceptors the respiratory modulation of sympathetic activity is maintained within the normal range. The activity of presympathetic neurons is under respiratory modulation, and changes in the central respiratory network may impact on the baseline sympathetic activity and mean arterial pressure. It is well known that after removal of baroreceptor afferents [sino-aortic denervation (SAD)], rats present an unexpected normal level of mean arterial pressure. We hypothesized that changes in the respiratory pattern and in the respiratory modulation of the sympathetic activity contribute to keep the sympathetic outflow within a normal range of variation in the absence of arterial baroreceptors in rats. To study these mechanisms, we recorded perfusion pressure and the activities of phrenic and thoracic sympathetic nerves in male juvenile rats using the working heart-brainstem preparation. The time of inspiration significantly increased in SAD rats, and this change was not dependent on the carotid bodies or on the vagal afferents. However, no changes were observed in the perfusion pressure or in the baseline thoracic sympathetic nerves in all phases of the respiratory cycle in SAD rats. Our data show that despite longer inspiratory activity, the baseline sympathetic activity is maintained at a normal level in SAD rats. These findings indicate that the respiratory-sympathetic coupling is normal after SAD and suggest that the respiratory modulation of sympathetic activity is maintained within the normal range after the removal of arterial baroreceptors.

Acute intermittent hypoxia in rats activates muscle proteolytic pathways through a gluccorticoid-dependent mechanism

Although it is well known that chronic hypoxia induces muscle wasting, the effects of intermittent hypoxia on skeletal muscle protein metabolism remain unclear. We hypothesized that acute intermittent hypoxia (AIH), a challenge that activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, would alter muscle protein homeostasis through a glucocorticoid-dependent mechanism. Three-week-old rats were submitted to adrenalectomy (ADX) and exposed to 8 h of AIH (6% O₂ for 40 s at 9-min intervals). Animals were euthanized, and the soleus and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles were harvested and incubated in vitro for measurements of protein turnover. AIH increased plasma levels of corticosterone and induced insulin resistance as estimated by the insulin tolerance test and lower rates of muscle glucose oxidation and the HOMA index. In both soleus and EDL muscles, rates of overall proteolysis increased after AIH. This rise was accompanied by an increased proteolytic activities of the ubiquitin(Ub)-proteasome system (UPS) and lysosomal and Ca²⁺-dependent pathways. Furthermore, AIH increased Ub-protein conjugates and gene expression of atrogin-1 and MuRF-1, two key Ub-protein ligases involved in muscle atrophy. In parallel, AIH increased the mRNA expression of the autophagy-related genes LC3b and GABARAPl1. In vitro rates of protein synthesis in skeletal muscles did not differ between AIH and control rats. ADX completely blocked the insulin resistance in hypoxic rats and the AIH-induced activation of proteolytic pathways and atrogene expression in both soleus and EDL muscles. These results demonstrate that AIH induces insulin resistance in association with activation of the UPS, the autophagic-lysosomal process, and Ca²⁺-dependent proteolysis through a glucocorticoid-dependent mechanism.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Since hypoxia is a condition in which the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply and muscle wasting is induced, the present work provides evidence linking hypoxia to proteolysis through a glucocorticoid-dependent mechanism. We show that the activation of proteolytic pathways, atrophy-related genes, and insulin resistance in rats exposed to acute intermittent hypoxia was abolished by surgical removal of adrenal gland. This finding will be helpful for understanding of the muscle wasting in hypoxemic conditions.

Cardiovascular and respiratory outcome of preconditioned rats submitted to chronic intermittent hypoxia

NEW FINDINGS

What is the central question of this study? What are the effects of hypoxic preconditioning upon the cardiovascular and respiratory responses to subsequent episodes of chronic intermittent hypoxia? What is the main finding and its importance? The cardiovascular and respiratory responses to a chronic intermittent hypoxia protocol were not altered by previous exposure to intermittent or sustained hypoxia. These findings show that preconditioning to hypoxia produced neither facilitation nor protection from the cardiovascular and respiratory dysfunctions in response to subsequent episodes of chronic intermittent hypoxia in juvenile rats. Rats exposed to chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) develop hypertension, which is associated with changes in the coupling of sympathetic and respiratory activities. In this study, we hypothesized that previous preconditioning to intermittent or sustained hypoxia would affect cardiovascular and respiratory changes produced by subsequent protocols of CIH. To test this hypothesis, male Wistar rats were preconditioned to either 10 days of CIH or 24 h of sustained hypoxia (SH). After the initial exposure to hypoxia, rats were maintained in normoxic conditions for 15 days before a new protocol of CIH during 10 days. Cardiovascular and respiratory variables obtained from groups of preconditioned rats were compared with a group of rats exposed to CIH for the first time and also to a group of rats maintained in normoxic conditions throughout the period of time of the respective preconditioning protocol. The data show that CIH produced a similar increase in arterial pressure and heart rate in both CIH and SH preconditioning protocols. Respiratory parameters during basal conditions were also not affected by preconditioning to either CIH or SH. We conclude that previous exposure to CIH or SH preconditioning does not facilitate or prevent the cardiovascular changes produced by CIH.

Short-term sustained hypoxia induces changes in the coupling of sympathetic and respiratory activities in rats

Individuals experiencing sustained hypoxia (SH) exhibit adjustments in the respiratory and autonomic functions by neural mechanisms not yet elucidated. In the present study we evaluated the central mechanisms underpinning the SH-induced changes in the respiratory pattern and their impact on the sympathetic outflow. Using a decerebrated arterially perfused in situ preparation, we verified that juvenile rats exposed to SH (10% O2) for 24 h presented an active expiratory pattern, with increased abdominal, hypoglossal and vagal activities during late-expiration (late-E). SH also enhanced the activity of augmenting-expiratory neurones and depressed the activity of post-inspiratory neurones of the Bötzinger complex (BötC) by mechanisms not related to changes in their intrinsic electrophysiological properties. SH rats exhibited high thoracic sympathetic activity and arterial pressure levels associated with an augmented firing frequency of pre-sympathetic neurones of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) during the late-E phase. The antagonism of ionotropic glutamatergic receptors in the BötC/RVLM abolished the late-E bursts in expiratory and sympathetic outputs of SH rats, indicating that glutamatergic inputs to the BötC/RVLM are essential for the changes in the expiratory and sympathetic coupling observed in SH rats. We also observed that the usually silent late-E neurones of the retrotrapezoid nucleus/parafacial respiratory group became active in SH rats, suggesting that this neuronal population may provide the excitatory drive essential to the emergence of active expiration and sympathetic overactivity. We conclude that short-term SH induces the activation of medullary expiratory neurones, which affects the pattern of expiratory motor activity and its coupling with sympathetic activity.

Glial cells modulate the synaptic transmission of NTS neurons sending projections to ventral medulla of Wistar rats

There is evidence that sympathoexcitatory and respiratory responses to chemoreflex activation involve ventrolateral medulla-projecting nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) neurons (NTS-VLM neurons) and also that ATP modulates this neurotransmission. Here, we evaluated whether or not astrocytes is the source of endogenous ATP modulating the synaptic transmission in NTS-VLM neurons. Synaptic activities of putative astrocytes or NTS-VLM neurons were recorded using whole cell patch clamp. Tractus solitarius (TS) stimulation induced TS-evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (TS-eEPSCs) in NTS-VLM neurons as well in NTS putative astrocytes, which were also identified by previous labeling. Fluoracetate (FAC), an inhibitor of glial metabolism, reduced TS-eEPSCs amplitude (-85.6 ± 16 vs. -39 ± 7.1 pA, n = 12) and sEPSCs frequency (2.8 ± 0.5 vs. 1.8 ± 0.46 Hz, n = 10) in recorded NTS-VLM neurons, indicating a gliomodulation of glutamatergic currents. To verify the involvement of endogenous ATP a purinergic antagonist was used, which reduced the TS-eEPSCs amplitude (-207 ± 50 vs. -149 ± 50 pA, n = 6), the sEPSCs frequency (1.19 ± 0.2 vs. 0.62 ± 0.11 Hz, n = 6), and increased the paired-pulse ratio (PPR) values (∼20%) in NTS-VLM neurons. Simultaneous perfusion of Pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',5'-disulfonic acid (iso-PPADS) and FAC produced reduction in TS-eEPSCs similar to that observed with iso-PPADS or FAC alone, indicating that glial cells are the source of ATP released after TS stimulation. Extracellular ATP measurement showed that FAC reduced evoked and spontaneous ATP release. All together these data show that putative astrocytes are the source of endogenous ATP, which via activation of presynaptic P2X receptors, facilitates the evoked glutamate release and increases the synaptic transmission efficacy in the NTS-VLM neurons probably involved with the peripheral chemoreflex pathways.

Modulation of respiratory responses to chemoreflex activation by L-glutamate and ATP in the rostral ventrolateral medulla of awake rats

Presympathetic neurons in the different anteroposterior aspects of rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) are colocalized with expiratory [Bötzinger complex (BötC)] and inspiratory [pre-Bötzinger complex (pre-BötC)] neurons of ventral respiratory column (VRC), suggesting that this region integrates the cardiovascular and respiratory chemoreflex responses. In the present study, we evaluated in different anteroposterior aspects of RVLM of awake rats the role of ionotropic glutamate and purinergic receptors on cardiorespiratory responses to chemoreflex activation. The bilateral ionotropic glutamate receptors antagonism with kynurenic acid (KYN) (8 nmol/50 nl) in the rostral aspect of RVLM (RVLM/BötC) enhanced the tachypneic (120 ± 9 vs. 180 ± 9 cpm; P < 0.01) and attenuated the pressor response (55 ± 2 vs. 15 ± 1 mmHg; P < 0.001) to chemoreflex activation (n = 7). On the other hand, bilateral microinjection of KYN into the caudal aspect of RVLM (RVLM/pre-BötC) caused a respiratory arrest in four awake rats used in the present study. Bilateral P2X receptors antagonism with PPADS (0.25 nmol/50 nl) in the RVLM/BötC reduced chemoreflex tachypneic response (127 ± 6 vs. 70 ± 5 cpm; P < 0.001; n = 6), but did not change the chemoreflex pressor response. In addition, PPADS into the RVLM/BötC attenuated the enhancement of the tachypneic response to chemoreflex activation elicited by previous microinjections of KYN into the same subregion (188 ± 2 vs. 157 ± 3 cpm; P < 0.05; n = 5). Our findings indicate that: 1) L-glutamate, but not ATP, in the RVLM/BötC is required for pressor response to peripheral chemoreflex and 2) both transmitters in the RVLM/BötC are required for the processing of the ventilatory response to peripheral chemoreflex activation in awake rats.

Sympathetic-mediated hypertension of awake juvenile rats submitted to chronic intermittent hypoxia is not linked to baroreflex dysfunction

In the present study, we evaluated the mechanisms underpinning the hypertension observed in freely moving juvenile rats submitted to chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH). Male juvenile Wistar rats (20-21 days old) were submitted to CIH (6% O(2) for 40 s every 9 min, 8 h day(1)) for 10 days while control rats were maintained in normoxia. Prior to CIH, baseline systolic arterial pressure (SAP), measured indirectly, was similar between groups (86 +/- 1 versus 87 +/- 1 mmHg). After exposure to CIH, SAP recorded directly was higher in the CIH (n = 28) than in the control group (n = 29; 131 +/- 3 versus 115 +/- 2 mmHg, P < 0.05). This higher SAP of CIH rats presented an augmented power of oscillatory components at low (10.05 +/- 0.91 versus 5.02 +/- 0.63 mmHg(2), P < 0.05) and high (respiratory-related) frequencies (12.42 +/- 2.46 versus 3.28 +/- 0.61 mmHg(2), P < 0.05) in comparison with control animals. In addition, rats exposed to CIH also exhibited an increased cardiac baroreflex gain (3.11 +/- 0.08 versus 2.1 +/- 0.10 beats min(1) mmHg(1), P < 0.0001), associated with a shift to the right of the operating point, in comparison with control rats. Administration of hexamethonium (ganglionic blocker, i.v.), injected after losartan (angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonist) and [beta-mercapto-beta,beta-cyclopenta-methylenepropionyl(1), O-Me-Tyr(2), Arg(8)]-vasopressin (vasopressin type 1a receptor antagonist), produced a larger depressor response in the CIH (n = 8) than in the control group (n = 9; 49 +/- 2 versus 39 +/- 2 mmHg, P < 0.05). Fifteen days after the cessation of exposure to CIH, the mean arterial pressure of CIH rats returned to normal levels. The data indicate that the sympathetic-mediated hypertension observed in conscious juvenile rats exposed to CIH is not secondary to a reduction in cardiac baroreflex gain and exhibits a higher respiratory modulation, indicating that an enhanced respiratory-sympathetic coupling seems to be the major factor contributing to hypertension in rats exposed to CIH.

Intermittent activation of peripheral chemoreceptors in awake rats induces Fos expression in rostral ventrolateral medulla-projecting neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

Despite the well-established sympathoexcitation evoked by chemoreflex activation, the specific sub-regions of the CNS underlying such sympathetic responses remain to be fully characterized. In the present study we examined the effects of intermittent chemoreflex activation in awake rats on Fos-immunoreactivity (Fos-ir) in various subnuclei of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), as well as in identified neurosecretory preautonomic PVN neurons. In response to intermittent chemoreflex activation, a significant increase in the number of Fos-ir cells was found in autonomic-related PVN subnuclei, including the posterior parvocellular, ventromedial parvocellular and dorsal-cap, but not in the neurosecretory magnocellular-containing lateral magnocellular subnucleus. No changes in Fos-ir following chemoreflex activation were observed in the anterior PVN subnucleus. Experiments combining Fos immunohistochemistry and neuronal tract tracing techniques showed a significant increase in Fos-ir in rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM)-projecting (PVN-RVLM), but not in nucleus of solitarii tract (NTS)-projecting PVN neurons. In summary, our results support the involvement of the PVN in the central neuronal circuitry activated in response to chemoreflex activation, and indicate that PVN-RVLM neurons constitute a neuronal substrate contributing to the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex.

Are L-glutamate and ATP cotransmitters of the peripheral chemoreflex in the rat nucleus tractus solitarius?

Peripheral chemoreflex activation in awake rats or in the working heart-brainstem preparation (WHBP) produces sympathoexcitation, bradycardia and an increase in the frequency of phrenic nerve activity. Our focus is the neurotransmission of the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex within the nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS), and recently we verified that the simultaneous antagonism of ionotropic glutamate and purinergic P(2) receptors in the NTS blocked the pressor response and increased thoracic sympathetic activity in awake rats and WHBP, respectively, in response to peripheral chemoreflex activation. These previous data suggested the involvement of ATP and L-glutamate in the NTS in the processing of the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex by unknown mechanisms. For a better understanding of these mechanisms, here we used a patch-clamp approach in brainstem slices to evaluate the characteristics of the synaptic transmission of NTS neurons sending projections to the ventral medulla, which include the premotor neurons involved in the generation of the sympathetic outflow. The NTS neurons sending projections to the ventral medulla were identified by previous microinjection of the membrane tracer dye, 1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (DiI), in the ventral medulla and the spontaneous (sEPSCs) and tractus solitarius (TS)-evoked excitatory postsynaptic current (TS-eEPSCs) were recorded using patch clamp. With this approach, we made the following observations on NTS neurons projecting to the ventral medulla: (i) the sEPSCs and TS-eEPSCs of DiI-labelled NTS neurons were completely abolished by 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3(1H,4H)-dione (DNQX), an antagonist of ionotropic non-NMDA glutamatergic receptors, showing that they are mediated by L-glutamate; (ii) application of ATP increased the frequency of appearance of spontaneous glutamatergic currents, reflecting an increased exocytosis of glutamatergic vesicles; and (iii) ATP decreased the peak of TS-evoked glutamatergic currents. We conclude that L-glutamate is the main neurotransmitter of spontaneous and TS-evoked synaptic activities in the NTS neurons projecting to the ventral medulla and that ATP has a dual modulatory role on this excitatory transmission, facilitating the spontaneous glutamatergic transmission and inhibiting the TS-evoked glutamatergic transmission. These data also suggest that ATP is not acting as a cotransmitter with L-glutamate, at least at the level of this subpopulation of NTS neurons studied.

Increased sympathetic outflow in juvenile rats submitted to chronic intermittent hypoxia correlates with enhanced expiratory activity

Chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) in rats produces changes in the central regulation of cardiovascular and respiratory systems by unknown mechanisms. We hypothesized that CIH (6% O(2) for 40 s, every 9 min, 8 h day(-1)) for 10 days alters the central respiratory modulation of sympathetic activity. After CIH, awake rats (n = 14) exhibited higher levels of mean arterial pressure than controls (101 +/- 3 versus 89 +/- 3 mmHg, n = 15, P < 0.01). Recordings of phrenic, thoracic sympathetic, cervical vagus and abdominal nerves were performed in the in situ working heart-brainstem preparations of control and CIH juvenile rats. The data obtained in CIH rats revealed that: (i) abdominal (Abd) nerves exhibited an additional burst discharge in late expiration; (ii) thoracic sympathetic nerve activity (tSNA) was greater during late expiration than in controls (52 +/- 5 versus 40 +/- 3%; n = 11, P < 0.05; values expressed according to the maximal activity observed during inspiration and the noise level recorded at the end of each experiment), which was not dependent on peripheral chemoreceptors; (iii) the additional late expiratory activity in the Abd nerve correlated with the increased tSNA; (iv) the enhanced late expiratory activity in the Abd nerve unique to CIH rats was accompanied by reduced post-inspiratory activity in cervical vagus nerve compared to controls. The data indicate that CIH rats present an altered pattern of central sympathetic-respiratory coupling, with increased tSNA that correlates with enhanced late expiratory discharge in the Abd nerve. Thus, CIH alters the coupling between the central respiratory generator and sympathetic networks that may contribute to the induced hypertension in this experimental model.

Plasma corticosterone levels is elevated in rats submitted to chronic intermittent hypoxia

In the present study we investigated whether plasma corticosterone is altered in rats exposed to chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH). Rats were submitted to a fraction of inspired oxygen of 6%, for 40 s, every 9 min, 8 h a day, for 35 days (CIH rats, n=17), while control rats were maintained under normoxic conditions (n=16). After CIH, the rats presented a significant increase in baseline mean arterial pressure (118+/-2 vs 106+/-3, mmHg) but not in baseline heart rate (381+/-17 vs 362+/-12 bpm) when compared to the control rats. Besides, a significant increase in plasma corticosterone was observed in CIH rats in comparison to the control rats (39+/-4 vs 20+/-2 microg/dl). Considering that corticosterone can affect both peripheral and central sympathetic mechanisms, the elevated plasma corticosterone may represent a new insight on the mechanisms underlying the hypertension observed after CIH.

Involvement of L-glutamate and ATP in the neurotransmission of the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex in the commissural nucleus tractus solitarii of awake rats and in the working heart-brainstem preparation

Peripheral chemoreflex activation with potassium cyanide (KCN) in awake rats or in the working heart-brainstem preparation (WHBP) produces: (a) a sympathoexcitatory/pressor response; (b) bradycardia; and (c) an increase in the frequency of breathing. Our main aim was to evaluate neurotransmitters involved in mediating the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex within the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS). In previous studies in conscious rats, the reflex bradycardia, but not the pressor response, was reduced by antagonism of either ionotropic glutamate or purinergic P2 receptors within the NTS. In the present study we evaluated a possible dual role of both P2 and NMDA receptors in the NTS for processing the sympathoexcitatory component (pressor response) of the chemoreflex in awake rats as well as in the WHBP. Simultaneous blockade of ionotropic glutamate receptors and P2 receptors by sequential microinjections of kynurenic acid (KYN, 2 nmol (50 nl)(-1)) and pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulphonate (PPADS, 0.25 nmol (50 nl)(-1)) into the commissural NTS in awake rats produced a significant reduction in both the pressor (+38+/-3 versus +8+/-3 mmHg) and bradycardic responses (-172+/-18 versus -16+/-13 beats min(-1); n=13), but no significant changes in the tachypnoea measured using plethysmography (270+/-30 versus 240+/-21 cycles min(-1), n=7) following chemoreflex activation in awake rats. Control microinjections of saline produced no significant changes in these reflex responses. In WHBP, microinjection of KYN (2 nmol (20 nl)(-1)) and PPADS (1.6 nmol (20 nl)(-1)) into the commissural NTS attenuated significantly both the increase in thoracic sympathetic activity (+52+/-2% versus +17+/-1%) and the bradycardic response (-151+/-17 versus -21+/-3 beats min(-1)) but produced no significant changes in the increase of the frequency of phrenic nerve discharge (+0.24+/-0.02 versus +0.20+/-0.02 Hz). The data indicate that combined microinjections of PPADS and KYN into the commissural NTS in both awake rats and the WHBP are required to produce a significant reduction in the sympathoexcitatory response (pressor response) to peripheral chemoreflex activation. We conclude that glutamatergic and purinergic mechanisms are part of the complex neurotransmission system of the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex at the level of the commissural NTS.

Noradrenergic inhibitory modulation in the caudal commissural NTS of the pressor response to chemoreflex activation in awake rats

In the present study we evaluated the possible modulatory role of noradrenaline on the neurotransmission of the peripheral chemoreflex afferents in the caudal commissural NTS of awake rats. To reach this goal we performed a dose-response curve to microinjection of increasing dose of noradrenaline into the caudal commissural NTS of awake rats and then the threshold dose, which produces minor changes in the baseline mean arterial pressure, was selected to be used in the chemoreflex experiment. The peripheral chemoreflex was activated with KCN before and after bilateral microinjections of noradrenaline (5 nMol/50 nL, threshold dose) into the NTS. The data show that microinjection of noradrenaline into the caudal NTS produced a significant reduction in the pressor response to the chemoreflex 30 s after the injection when compared to the control response (30+/-6 vs. 49+/-3 mm Hg) but no significant changes in the bradycardic response. The data indicate that noradrenaline in the caudal commissural NTS of awake rats may play an important inhibitory neuromodulatory role on the processing of the pressor/sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex.

Involvement of central 5-HT7 receptors in modulation of cardiovascular reflexes in awake rats

This study evaluated the role of 5-HT7 receptors within the central nervous system in modulating cardiovascular responses to the activation of chemo-, baro- and cardiopulmonary reflexes and in the regulation of mean arterial pressure and heart rate, using intracisternal (i.c.) application of the selective 5-HT7 receptor antagonist SB-269970 in awake rats. Experiments were performed on male Wistar rats (300-320 g). At 4 days before the experiment, rats were anesthetized and placed in a stereotaxic frame implantation of a guide cannula in the direction of the cisterna magna to be used for microinjection of saline or SB-269970 (100 microg/kg). On the day before the experiments a femoral artery and vein were cannulated to record arterial pressure and heart rate and to inject drugs to activate cardiovascular reflexes, respectively. The chemo-, baro- and cardiopulmonary reflexes were activated in different experimental groups before and after i.c. injection of saline or SB-269970. The antagonism of 5-HT7 receptors reduced: (a) the pressor (50+/-4 vs. 19+/-9 mm Hg) and bradycardic (-247+/-13 vs. -69+/-27 bpm) responses to chemoreflex activation; (b) the fall in MAP (-54+/-4 vs. -20+/-6 mm Hg) and the bradycardia (-294+/-12 vs. -98+/-34 bpm) in response to cardiopulmonary reflex activation; and (c) the gain of the baroreflex (-2.3+/-0.1 to -0.9+/-0.2 bpm/mm Hg). Intracisternal application of SB-269970 increased significantly baseline MAP in those rats previously submitted to the activation of a cardiovascular reflex but in naïve rats produced no changes in the baseline MAP were observed. The fact that cardiovascular responses to all reflexes tested were attenuated by the antagonism of 5-HT7 receptors suggests that brainstem 5-HT7 receptors brainstem facilitate the processing of the autonomic responses to cardiovascular reflex activation and that a 5-HT-containing pathway to the brainstem provides a normalizing input during challenges produced by cardiovascular reflex activation which seems to be mediated by 5-HT7 receptors.

Increased sympathetic activity in rats submitted to chronic intermittent hypoxia

Long-term exposure to intermittent hypoxia may lead to important cardiovascular dysfunctions, such as hypertension. Rodent models of chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) have been used to study the mechanisms underlying the increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP) observed after exposure to CIH. Several studies suggest that the hypertension of rats submitted to CIH is associated with an increase in sympathetic activity. However, there are no studies documenting the direct measurement of sympathetic activity in conscious freely moving rats exposed to CIH. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate whether or not the increase of MAP in rats exposed to CIH is associated with an increase in sympathetic activity. To reach this goal, we analysed the effect of ganglionic blockade on baseline MAP as well as the plasma levels of catecholamines. Rats submitted to CIH (fractional inspired O(2) of 6%, for 40 s in every 9 min, 8 h day(-1)) for 35 days (n = 31) exhibited a significant increase in MAP compared with control rats (n = 28) maintained under normoxia (112 +/- 2 versus 103 +/- 1 mmHg, P = 0.0003). The injection of the ganglionic blocker hexamethonium resulted in a similar fall in MAP in CIH and control groups (-46 +/- 2 versus -41 +/- 3 mmHg). However, hexamethonium after previous antagonism of the angiotensin II type 1 (AT(1)) receptors with losartan produced a larger decrease in MAP in the CIH than in the control group (-58 +/- 2 versus -50 +/- 2 mmHg, P = 0.0165). The injection of losartan itself produced no major changes in the baseline MAP in both groups. The measurement of plasma catecholamines showed an increase in plasma noradrenaline (10.12 +/- 0.90 versus 4.74 +/- 0.32 ng ml(-1), P = 0.0042) in rats exposed to CIH compared with control rats. These data provide strong evidence to support the concept that rats submitted to CIH exhibit an increase in sympathetic activity, which seems to be determinant in the maintenance of hypertension in this experimental model.

Hemodynamic and respiratory responses to microinjection of ATP into the intermediate and caudal NTS of awake rats

The nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) is the site of integration of the peripheral chemoreceptor afferents in the brainstem. Previous studies from our laboratory have shown that microinjection of ATP into the intermediate NTS produced increases in arterial pressure and bradycardia. In the present study, we evaluated the hemodynamic and respiratory responses to microinjection of ATP into the intermediate and caudal commissural NTS. In the same group of rats the responses were compared with cardiorespiratory responses to chemoreflex activation (KCN, i.v.). The data show that microinjection of ATP into the intermediate NTS produced pressor and bradycardic responses similar to those observed in response to chemoreflex activation but apnoea instead of tachypnoea. Microinjection of ATP into caudal commissural NTS produced increase in arterial pressure and tachypnoea similar to the chemoreflex but a minor bradycardia. The data show that microinjection of ATP into different sub-regions of the NTS produces a diverse pattern of hemodynamic and respiratory responses and suggest the involvement of this purine in the neurotransmission of the cardiovascular reflex in the NTS.

Antagonism of glutamate receptors in the intermediate and caudal NTS of awake rats produced no changes in the hypertensive response to chemoreflex activation

The role of excitatory amino acid (EAA) receptors in the neurotransmission of the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex (pressor response) in the intermediate and caudal aspects of the commissural nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) of awake rats was evaluated. Microinjection of kynurenic acid, a non-selective antagonist of EAA receptors, into the intermediate and caudal commissural NTS produced a large increase in the baseline mean arterial pressure (MAP), which may reduce the magnitude of the pressor response to chemoreflex activation. To avoid this problem sodium nitroprusside (SNP) was infused (i.v.) after microinjections of kynurenic acid (2 nmol/50 nl) into the NTS, in order to normalize the MAP and then the chemoreflex was activated and the magnitude of the pressor response evaluated. Microinjection of kynurenic acid into the intermediate (bilaterally) and caudal (midline) commissural NTS (n=6) produced a significant increase in baseline MAP (103+/-5 vs. 137+/-6 mm Hg) normalized by SNP infusion (107+/-4 mm Hg) and under this experimental condition the pressor response to chemoreflex activation was not statistically different in relation to the control (37+/-7 vs. 44+/-6 mm Hg). Bilateral microinjections of kynurenic acid into the caudal NTS (n=8) also produced a significant increase in baseline MAP (109+/-4 vs. 145+/-6 mm Hg) normalized by SNP infusion (109+/-6 mm Hg). After normalization of MAP, the pressor response to chemoreflex activation at 3 (34+/-6 mm Hg) and 10 min (37+/-6 mm Hg) was also not different in relation to the control (46+/-5 mm Hg). These data indicate that the antagonism of EAA receptors simultaneously in the intermediate (bilateral) and caudal (midline) commissural NTS or only in the caudal commissural NTS (bilateral) of awake rats had no effect on the hypertensive response to chemoreflex activation. We suggest that neurotransmitter other than l-glutamate may take part in the neurotransmission of the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex at the NTS level.

Pressor response to chemoreflex activation in awake rats: role of vasopressin and adrenal medulla

The possible role of the peptide vasopressin and adrenal catecholamine in the pressor response to chemoreflex activation was evaluated in awake rats. Data show that the peripheral blockade of the V1 vasopressin receptor produced no change in the cardiovascular responses to chemoreflex activation, indicating that vasopressin plays no role on the pressor response to chemoreflex activation. We also have shown that the pressor response to chemoreflex activation is dependent on the sympathetic efferent activity since the antagonism of the alpha1-adrenoceptor with prazosin almost abolished the pressor response to chemoreflex activation. Furthermore, bilateral adrenal demedullation produced no change on the pressor response to chemoreflex activation, outpointing that the release of catecholamines by the adrenal medulla is not involved in the pressor response to chemoreflex. We conclude that the pressor response to chemoreflex activation is essentially mediated by the sympathetic innervations to the peripheral vascular beds.

Cardiovascular responses to microinjection of ATP into the nucleus tractus solitarii of awake rats

Microinjection of increasing doses of ATP (0.31, 0.62, 1.25, and 2.5 nmol/50 nl) into the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) produced a dose-dependent pressor response. Prazosin abolished the pressor response and produced no change in the bradycardic response to ATP. Microinjection of pyridoxal phosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (0.25 nmol/50 nl), a nonselective P2 receptor antagonist into the NTS, reduced the bradycardic response but had no effect on the pressor response to microinjection of ATP (1.25 nmol/50 nl) into the NTS. Microinjection of suramin (2 nmol/50 nl), another nonselective P2 receptor antagonist, had no effect on the pressor and bradycardic responses to microinjection of ATP (1.25 nmol/50 nl) into the NTS. Antagonism of A1 receptors of adenosine with 1,3-dipropyl-8-cyclopentylxanthine also produced no changes in the cardiovascular responses to microinjection of ATP into the NTS. The involvement of excitatory amino acid (EAA) receptors in the pressor and bradycardic responses to microinjection of ATP into the NTS was also evaluated. Microinjection of kynurenic acid, a nonselective EAA receptor antagonist (10 nmol/50 nl), into the NTS reduced the bradycardic response and had no effect on the pressor response to microinjection of ATP into the NTS. The data show that 1) microinjection of ATP into the NTS of awake rats produced pressor and bradycardic responses by independent mechanisms, 2) the activation of parasympathetic component may involve an interaction of P2 and EAA receptors in the NTS, and 3) the sympathoexcitatory response to microinjection of ATP into the NTS was not affected by the blockade of P2, A1, or EAA receptors.

NMDA receptor antagonism blocks the cardiovascular responses to microinjection of trans-ACPD into the NTS of awake rats

The possible interaction of glutamatergic metabotropic agonists and N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors was investigated in the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) of awake rats. The cardiovascular responses to unilateral microinjection of trans-1-amino-1,3-cyclopentanediocarboxylic acid (trans-ACPD; 250 pmol/50 nL) into the NTS (n= 8) produced hypotension (-64 +/- 4 mmHg) and bradycardic (-206 +/- 11 bpm) responses, which were blocked by previous microinjection of 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (AP-5; 10 nmol/50 nL), a selective antagonist of NMDA ionotropic receptors, into the same site. Intravenous injection of methyl-atropine blocked both the bradycardic and hypotensive responses to microinjection of trans-ACPD into the NTS, indicating that the hypotension was secondary to the intense bradycardic response. The data also showed that the bradycardic and hypotensive responses to microinjection of an NMDA agonist (10 pmol/50 nL) into the NTS were not affected by previous microinjection of alpha-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (MCPG; 5 nmol/50 nL), a non-selective antagonist of metabotropic receptors. The results showing that the cardiovascular responses to microinjection of trans-ACPD into the NTS were blocked by AP-5 indicate that the responses to metabotropic agonists in the NTS involves NMDA receptors.

Pressor response to chemoreflex activation before and after microinjection of glycine into the NTS of awake rats

Microinjection of glycine into the rostral (bilateral) and caudal (midline) commissural nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) using three guide cannulas implanted in the direction of these sites produced an increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP) and abolished the pressor response to chemoreflex activation [potassium cyanide (n = 7)]. Strychnine, a glycine receptor antagonist, attenuated the increase in MAP, and in this new experimental condition (n = 5) the pressor response to chemoreflex activation was not altered. Considering that the effect of glycine on the attenuation of the pressor response to chemoreflex activation could be secondary to the increase in baseline MAP, in a third group of rats (n = 5) sodium nitroprusside infusion (intravenous) after microinjections of glycine into the NTS normalizes MAP. In this case, the pressor response to chemoreflex activation was similar to the control. These data show that glycine when microinjected bilaterally into the lateral commissural NTS as well as into the medial commissural NTS plays no major inhibitory role in the processing of the neurotransmission of the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex.

Involvement of the parabrachial nucleus in the pressor response to chemoreflex activation in awake rats

Activation of the chemoreflex with potassium cyanide (KCN, 40 microg/rat, i.v.) in awake rats produces pressor and bradycardic responses as well as a tachypneic response. In the present study, we evaluated the involvement of the periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) and the parabrachial nucleus (PBN) in the neural pathways of the cardiovascular responses to chemoreflex activation. The cardiovascular responses to chemoreflex activation were evaluated before and after bilateral microinjection of 2% lidocaine, a local anesthetic, into the PBN or PAG in order to block in a reversible manner the neuronal activity and axonal conduction of fibers of passage in these areas. The data show that the pressor response to chemoreflex activation 3 min after bilateral microinjection of lidocaine into the dorsolateral aspect of the PBN was significantly reduced in comparison to the control response (32 +/- 5 vs. 48 +/- 4 mm Hg, n = 7), with no significant changes in the bradycardic responses. The effect of lidocaine was reversible since the pressor response was back to control levels 15 min after microinjection of this anesthetic. Bilateral microinjections of lidocaine into the dorsolateral (n = 11) or lateral (n = 8) columns of the PAG in distinct groups of rats produced no significant changes in the pressor or bradycardic responses of the chemoreflex. These data indicate that the PBN is part of the neuronal pathways involved in the sympathoexcitatory component of the chemoreflex while the PAG is not.

Involvement of NMDA receptors in the pressor response to microinjection of 5-HT3 agonist into the NTS of awake rats

Previous studies have shown that the activation of 5-HT3 receptors in the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) increases the baseline mean arterial pressure (MAP). In the present study, we evaluated the possible involvement of NMDA receptors in this pressor response. Four days before the experiments, under tribromoethanol anesthesia, rats received two guide cannulas in the direction of the NTS, and 1 day before the experiments, under tribromoethanol anesthesia, the femoral artery was cannulated for pulsatile arterial pressure (PAP), MAP, and heart rate (HR) measurements. On the day of the experiments, 2-methyl-serotonin, a 5-HT3 agonist, was microinjected into the NTS after microinjection of saline or AP-5, a selective NMDA receptor antagonist. Microinjection of 2-methyl-serotonin (5 nmol/50 nl) into the NTS after the vehicle (saline) produced a significant increase in MAP (+ 20 +/- 5 mm Hg, n = 8) while microinjection of 2-methyl-serotonin after microinjection of AP-5 (10 nmol/50 nl) produced no change in baseline MAP (-1 +/- 3 mm Hg, n = 11). Microinjection of AP-5 into the NTS produced no significant changes in the baseline MAP and HR. The data show that the increase in MAP in response to microinjection of a 5-HT3 agonist into the NTS is dependent on NMDA receptors.

Cardiovascular responses to chemoreflex activation with potassium cyanide or hypoxic hypoxia in awake rats

Although intravenous (iv) injection of potassium cyanide (KCN) activates the arterial chemoreflex, it has been questioned whether cytotoxic hypoxia reproduces a physiological stimulus such as hypoxic hypoxia (low inspired O2 tension). Thus, the goal of the present study was to compare the cardiovascular responses elicited by intravenous injection of KCN to those caused by hypoxic hypoxia in awake rats before and after bilateral ligature of carotid body arteries. We tested the hypothesis that hypoxic hypoxia activates the cardiovascular chemoreflex just as KCN does, causing an increase in arterial pressure and bradycardia. Intact adult Wistar rats received an intravenous injection of KCN (160 microg/kg) and were exposed to hypoxic hypoxia (7-5% O2 breathing) for 10-15 s at random while mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) were measured. After the experiments, the animals were submitted to bilateral ligature of carotid body arteries or sham operation and the protocol was repeated on the subsequent day. Before surgery, all rats showed an abrupt rise in arterial pressure accompanied by a marked bradycardia in response to KCN or hypoxic hypoxia, with a very similar pattern. After surgery, these responses persisted only in the sham-operated group and were totally abolished in the ligature group. In conclusion, our data show that KCN is an appropriate stimulus to activate arterial chemoreflex because its cardiovascular responses are comparable to those induced by hypoxic hypoxia. Thus, the use of KCN as a tool to evaluate different aspects of the complex pattern of cardiovascular, respiratory, and behavioural responses to chemoreflex activation seems to be physiologically acceptable.

Pressor response to microinjection of orexin/hypocretin into rostral ventrolateral medulla of awake rats

Orexin A (or hypocretin 1)-immunoreactive neurons in the rat lateral hypothalamus project to several areas of the medulla oblongata that are closely associated with cardiovascular regulation. The present study was undertaken to further strengthen the hypothesis that orexin A accelerates cardiovascular response by activating sympathoexcitatory neurons in the rat rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM). First, immunohistochemical studies revealed the presence of orexin A-immunoreactive fibers in the RVLM. Double labeling the sections with orexin A- and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-antisera further showed that orexin A-immunoreactive fibers are in close proximity with TH-immunoreactive neurons, some of which may be barosensitive, bulbospinal neurons in the RVLM. Second, microinjection of orexin A (6.35, 12.7 and 38.1 microM) into the RVLM, which was verified later by histological examination, caused a significant increase of mean arterial pressure (MAP) and a moderate increase of heart rate (HR) in awake rats. L-glutamate (33.3 mM) injected into the same sites, caused a larger increase in MAP, but a decrease in HR; whereas, saline injection was without significant effect. Results from this study suggest that orexin A, which may be released from the nerve fibers originating from the neurons in the lateral hypothalamus, acting on RVLM neurons in the medulla, increases sympathetic outflow targeted to the heart and blood vessels in awake animals.