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Reich M, Spomer L, Klindt C, Fuchs K, Stindt J, Deutschmann K, Höhne J, Liaskou E, Hov JR, Karlsen TH, Beuers U, Verheij J, Ferreira-Gonzalez S, Hirschfield G, Forbes SJ, Schramm C, Esposito I, Nierhoff D, Fickert P, Fuchs CD, Trauner M, García-Beccaria M, Gabernet G, Nahnsen S, Mallm JP, Vogel M, Schoonjans K, Lautwein T, Köhrer K, Häussinger D, Luedde T, Heikenwalder M, Keitel V. Downregulation of TGR5 (GPBAR1) in biliary epithelial cells contributes to the pathogenesis of sclerosing cholangitis. J Hepatol 2021; 75:634-646. [PMID: 33872692 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2021.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is characterized by chronic inflammation and progressive fibrosis of the biliary tree. The bile acid receptor TGR5 (GPBAR1) is found on biliary epithelial cells (BECs), where it promotes secretion, proliferation and tight junction integrity. Thus, we speculated that changes in TGR5-expression in BECs may contribute to PSC pathogenesis. METHODS TGR5-expression and -localization were analyzed in PSC livers and liver tissue, isolated bile ducts and BECs from Abcb4-/-, Abcb4-/-/Tgr5Tg and ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA)- or 24-norursodeoxycholic acid (norUDCA)-fed Abcb4-/- mice. The effects of IL8/IL8 homologues on TGR5 mRNA and protein levels were studied. BEC gene expression was analyzed by single-cell transcriptomics (scRNA-seq) from distinct mouse models. RESULTS TGR5 mRNA expression and immunofluorescence staining intensity were reduced in BECs of PSC and Abcb4-/- livers, in Abcb4-/- extrahepatic bile ducts, but not in intrahepatic macrophages. No changes in TGR5 BEC fluorescence intensity were detected in liver tissue of other liver diseases, including primary biliary cholangitis. Incubation of BECs with IL8/IL8 homologues, but not with other cytokines, reduced TGR5 mRNA and protein levels. BECs from Abcb4-/- mice had lower levels of phosphorylated Erk and higher expression levels of Icam1, Vcam1 and Tgfβ2. Overexpression of Tgr5 abolished the activated inflammatory phenotype characteristic of Abcb4-/- BECs. NorUDCA-feeding restored TGR5-expression levels in BECs in Abcb4-/- livers. CONCLUSIONS Reduced TGR5 levels in BECs from patients with PSC and Abcb4-/- mice promote development of a reactive BEC phenotype, aggravate biliary injury and thus contribute to the pathogenesis of sclerosing cholangitis. Restoration of biliary TGR5-expression levels represents a previously unknown mechanism of action of norUDCA. LAY SUMMARY Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic cholestatic liver disease-associated with progressive inflammation of the bile duct, leading to fibrosis and end-stage liver disease. Bile acid (BA) toxicity may contribute to the development and disease progression of PSC. TGR5 is a membrane-bound receptor for BAs, which is found on bile ducts and protects bile ducts from BA toxicity. In this study, we show that TGR5 levels were reduced in bile ducts from PSC livers and in bile ducts from a genetic mouse model of PSC. Our investigations indicate that lower levels of TGR5 in bile ducts may contribute to PSC development and progression. Furthermore, treatment with norUDCA, a drug currently being tested in a phase III trial for PSC, restored TGR5 levels in biliary epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Reich
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Lina Spomer
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Caroline Klindt
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Katharina Fuchs
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jan Stindt
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Kathleen Deutschmann
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Johanna Höhne
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Evaggelia Liaskou
- Centre for Liver and Gastrointestinal Research, Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK; NIHR Birmingham Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
| | - Johannes R Hov
- Norwegian PSC Research Centre and Section of Gastroenterology at the Department of Transplantation Medicine, and Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Division of Cancer Medicine, Surgery and Transplantation, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tom H Karlsen
- Norwegian PSC Research Centre and Section of Gastroenterology at the Department of Transplantation Medicine, and Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Division of Cancer Medicine, Surgery and Transplantation, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ulrich Beuers
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology and Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research and Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, AGEM Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joanne Verheij
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology and Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research and Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, AGEM Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Gideon Hirschfield
- Toronto Centre for Liver Disease, Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, Canada
| | - Stuart J Forbes
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Christoph Schramm
- I. Department of Medicine and Martin Zeitz Centre for Rare Diseases, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Irene Esposito
- Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dirk Nierhoff
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Peter Fickert
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Claudia Daniela Fuchs
- Hans Popper Laboratory of Molecular Hepatology, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Trauner
- Hans Popper Laboratory of Molecular Hepatology, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - María García-Beccaria
- Division of Chronic Inflammation and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center Heidelberg (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gisela Gabernet
- Quantitative Biology Center (QBiC), Eberhard-Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sven Nahnsen
- Quantitative Biology Center (QBiC), Eberhard-Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jan-Philipp Mallm
- Single Cell Open Lab, German Cancer Research Center Heidelberg (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marina Vogel
- DKFZ Genomics and Proteomics Core Facility, German Cancer Research Center Heidelberg (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kristina Schoonjans
- Laboratory of Metabolic Signaling, Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences and School of Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tobias Lautwein
- Genomics and Transcriptomics Laboratory, Biologisch-Medizinisches-Forschungszentrum (BMFZ), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Karl Köhrer
- Genomics and Transcriptomics Laboratory, Biologisch-Medizinisches-Forschungszentrum (BMFZ), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dieter Häussinger
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Tom Luedde
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Mathias Heikenwalder
- Division of Chronic Inflammation and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center Heidelberg (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Verena Keitel
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Deutschmann K, Reich M, Klindt C, Dröge C, Spomer L, Häussinger D, Keitel V. Bile acid receptors in the biliary tree: TGR5 in physiology and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2017; 1864:1319-1325. [PMID: 28844960 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2017.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Revised: 08/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Bile salts represent signalling molecules with a variety of endocrine functions. Bile salt effects are mediated by different receptor molecules, comprising ligand-activated nuclear transcription factors as well as G protein-coupled membrane-bound receptors. The farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and the plasma membrane-bound G protein-coupled receptor TGR5 (Gpbar-1) are prototypic bile salt receptors of both classes and are highly expressed in the liver including the biliary tree as well as in the intestine. In liver, TGR5 is localized in different non-parenchymal cells such as sinusoidal endothelial cells, Kupffer cells, hepatic stellate cells and small and large cholangiocytes. Through TGR5 bile salts can mediate choleretic, cell-protective as well as proliferative effects in cholangiocytes. A disturbance of these signalling mechanisms can contribute to the development of biliary diseases. In line with the important role of TGR5 for bile salt signalling, TGR5 knockout mice are more susceptible to cholestatic liver damage. Furthermore, in absence of TGR5 cholangiocyte proliferation in response to cholestasis is attenuated and intrahepatic and extrahepatic bile ducts show increased cell damage, underscoring the role of the receptor for biliary physiology. Decreased TGR5 expression may also contribute to the development or progression of cholangiopathies like primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) since reduced TGR5-dependent cell-protective mechanisms such as bicarbonate secretion renders cholangiocytes more vulnerable towards bile salt toxicity. Nevertheless, TGR5 overexpression or constant stimulation of the receptor can promote cholangiocyte proliferation leading to cyst growth in polycystic liver disease or even progression of cholangiocarcinoma. Not only the stimulation of TGR5-mediated pathways by suitable TGR5 agonists but also the inhibition of TGR5 signalling by the use of antagonists represent potential therapeutic approaches for different types of biliary diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cholangiocytes in Health and Disease edited by Jesus Banales, Marco Marzioni, Nicholas LaRusso and Peter Jansen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Deutschmann
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty at Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Maria Reich
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty at Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Caroline Klindt
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty at Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Carola Dröge
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty at Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Lina Spomer
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty at Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dieter Häussinger
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty at Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Verena Keitel
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty at Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND TGR5 (G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1, M-Bar) is a G protein-coupled cell surface receptor responsive to bile acids (BA) and different steroid hormones. TGR5 mRNA is detected almost ubiquitious in human and rodent tissues with a very high expression in gallbladder, liver and intestine. In liver, TGR5 is found in sinusoidal endothelial cells, Kupffer cells and cholangiocytes. Activation of TGR5 triggers an elevation of intracellular cyclic AMP and further downstream signalling. Key Messages: TGR5 exerts anti-inflammatory effects, protects cholangiocytes from BA-induced toxicity, promotes cholangiocyte secretion and proliferation and reduces portal perfusion pressure. Furthermore, TGR5 mediates gallbladder filling. TGR5 knockout mice have a smaller BA pool size with altered composition and develop more severe liver injury after BA feeding, common bile duct ligation or injection of lipopolysaccharide. The absence of TGR5 also reduces the proliferative and regenerative capacity after partial hepatectomy or liver damage. Stimulation of TGR5 signalling can improve steatohepatitis, portal hypertension and hepatic inflammation in rodent models of liver damage. However, TGR5 activation also promotes the proliferation of cystic and malignant-transformed cholangiocytes. CONCLUSIONS TGR5 plays an important role in the protection of the liver from BA toxicity under cholestatic conditions. Stimulation of the receptor prevents excessive liver damage in rodent models of cholestasis, steatohepatitis, liver fibrosis and inflammation and also promotes liver regeneration. However, the activation of TGR5-dependent signalling may also trigger proliferation and apoptosis resistance of cystic cholangiocytes and malignantly transformed cholangiocytes, thus promoting cyst growth in polycystic liver disease or progression of cholangiocarcinoma. Depending on the type of liver disease stimulation as well as inhibition of TGR5, signalling may present a useful therapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Reich
- Clinic of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Greife A, Felekyan S, Ma Q, Gertzen CGW, Spomer L, Dimura M, Peulen TO, Wöhler C, Häussinger D, Gohlke H, Keitel V, Seidel CAM. Structural assemblies of the di- and oligomeric G-protein coupled receptor TGR5 in live cells: an MFIS-FRET and integrative modelling study. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36792. [PMID: 27833095 PMCID: PMC5105069 DOI: 10.1038/srep36792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
TGR5 is the first identified bile acid-sensing G-protein coupled receptor, which has emerged as a potential therapeutic target for metabolic disorders. So far, structural and multimerization properties are largely unknown for TGR5. We used a combined strategy applying cellular biology, Multiparameter Image Fluorescence Spectroscopy (MFIS) for quantitative FRET analysis, and integrative modelling to obtain structural information about dimerization and higher-order oligomerization assemblies of TGR5 wildtype (wt) and Y111 variants fused to fluorescent proteins. Residue 111 is located in transmembrane helix 3 within the highly conserved ERY motif. Co-immunoprecipitation and MFIS-FRET measurements with gradually increasing acceptor to donor concentrations showed that TGR5 wt forms higher-order oligomers, a process disrupted in TGR5 Y111A variants. From the concentration dependence of the MFIS-FRET data we conclude that higher-order oligomers - likely with a tetramer organization - are formed from dimers, the smallest unit suggested for TGR5 Y111A variants. Higher-order oligomers likely have a linear arrangement with interaction sites involving transmembrane helix 1 and helix 8 as well as transmembrane helix 5. The latter interaction is suggested to be disrupted by the Y111A mutation. The proposed model of TGR5 oligomer assembly broadens our view of possible oligomer patterns and affinities of class A GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annemarie Greife
- Chair for Molecular Physical Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Suren Felekyan
- Chair for Molecular Physical Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Qijun Ma
- Chair for Molecular Physical Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christoph G W Gertzen
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Lina Spomer
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Mykola Dimura
- Chair for Molecular Physical Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Thomas O Peulen
- Chair for Molecular Physical Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christina Wöhler
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dieter Häussinger
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Holger Gohlke
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Verena Keitel
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Claus A M Seidel
- Chair for Molecular Physical Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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Gertzen CGW, Spomer L, Smits SHJ, Häussinger D, Keitel V, Gohlke H. Mutational mapping of the transmembrane binding site of the G-protein coupled receptor TGR5 and binding mode prediction of TGR5 agonists. Eur J Med Chem 2015; 104:57-72. [PMID: 26435512 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2015.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2015] [Revised: 09/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
TGR5 (Gpbar-1, M-Bar) is a class A G-protein coupled bile acid-sensing receptor predominately expressed in brain, liver and gastrointestinal tract, and a promising drug target for the treatment of metabolic disorders. Due to the lack of a crystal structure of TGR5, the development of TGR5 agonists has been guided by ligand-based approaches so far. Three binding mode models of bile acid derivatives have been presented recently. However, they differ from one another in terms of overall orientation or with respect to the location and interactions of the cholane scaffold, or cannot explain all results from mutagenesis experiments. Here, we present an extended binding mode model based on an iterative and integrated computational and biological approach. An alignment of 68 TGR5 agonists based on this binding mode leads to a significant and good structure-based 3D QSAR model, which constitutes the most comprehensive structure-based 3D-QSAR study of TGR5 agonists undertaken so far and suggests that the binding mode model is a close representation of the "true" binding mode. The binding mode model is further substantiated in that effects predicted for eight mutations in the binding site agree with experimental analyses on the impact of these TGR5 variants on receptor activity. In the binding mode, the hydrophobic cholane scaffold of taurolithocholate orients towards the interior of the orthosteric binding site such that rings A and B are in contact with TM5 and TM6, the taurine side chain orients towards the extracellular opening of the binding site and forms a salt bridge with R79(EL1), and the 3-hydroxyl group forms hydrogen bonds with E169(5.44) and Y240(6.51). The binding mode thus differs in important aspects from the ones recently presented. These results are highly relevant for the development of novel, more potent agonists of TGR5 and should be a valuable starting point for the development of TGR5 antagonists, which could show antiproliferative effects in tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph G W Gertzen
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Lina Spomer
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Sander H J Smits
- Institute for Biochemistry, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dieter Häussinger
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Verena Keitel
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Holger Gohlke
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Gertzen C, Spomer L, Schmitz B, Häussinger D, Keitel V, Gohlke H. The secondary structure of the TGR5 membrane-proximal C-terminus determines plasma membrane localization and responsiveness towards extracellular ligands. Eur J Med Res 2014. [PMCID: PMC4118438 DOI: 10.1186/2047-783x-19-s1-s14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Koch A, Ma Q, Frohnapfel M, Spomer L, Keitel-Anselmino V, Gertzen C, Gohlke H, Seidel CAM. High-precision FRET analysis of the G-protein coupled receptor TGR5 in live cells. Eur J Med Res 2014. [PMCID: PMC4118445 DOI: 10.1186/2047-783x-19-s1-s12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Spomer L, Gertzen CGW, Schmitz B, Häussinger D, Gohlke H, Keitel V. A membrane-proximal, C-terminal α-helix is required for plasma membrane localization and function of the G Protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) TGR5. J Biol Chem 2013; 289:3689-702. [PMID: 24338481 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.502344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The C terminus of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is important for G protein-coupling and activation; in addition, sorting motifs have been identified in the C termini of several GPCRs that facilitate correct trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane. The C terminus of the GPCR TGR5 lacks any known sorting motif such that other factors must determine its trafficking. Here, we investigate deletion and substitution variants of the membrane-proximal C terminus of TGR5 with respect to plasma membrane localization and function using immunofluorescence staining, flow cytometry, and luciferase assays. Peptides of the membrane-proximal C-terminal variants are subjected to molecular dynamics simulations and analyzed with respect to their secondary structure. Our results reveal that TGR5 plasma membrane localization and responsiveness to extracellular ligands is fostered by a long (≥ 9 residues) α-helical stretch at the C terminus, whereas the presence of β-strands or only a short α-helical stretch leads to retention in the endoplasmic reticulum and a loss of function. As a proof-of-principle, chimeras of TGR5 containing the membrane-proximal amino acids of the β2 adrenergic receptor (β2AR), the sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor-1 (S1P1), or the κ-type opioid receptor (κOR) were generated. These TGR5β2AR, TGR5S1P1, or TGR5κOR chimeras were correctly sorted to the plasma membrane. As the exchanged amino acids of the β2AR, the S1P1, or the κOR form α-helices in crystal structures but lack significant sequence identity to the respective TGR5 sequence, we conclude that the secondary structure of the TGR5 membrane-proximal C terminus is the determining factor for plasma membrane localization and responsiveness towards extracellular ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Spomer
- From the Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Infectious Diseases and
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Keitel V, Spomer L, Marin J, Williamson C, Geenes V, Kubitz R, Häussinger D, Macias R. Effect of maternal cholestasis on TGR5 expression in human and rat placenta at term. Placenta 2013; 34:810-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2013.06.302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Revised: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Keitel V, Görg B, Bidmon HJ, Zemtsova I, Spomer L, Zilles K, Häussinger D. The bile acid receptor TGR5 (Gpbar-1) acts as a neurosteroid receptor in brain. Glia 2011; 58:1794-805. [PMID: 20665558 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
TGR5 (Gpbar-1) is a membrane-bound bile acid receptor in the gastrointestinal tract and immune cells with pleiotropic actions. As shown in the present study, TGR5 is also expressed in astrocytes and neurons. Here, TGR5 may act as a neurosteroid receptor, which is activated by nanomolar concentrations of 5β-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one and micromolar concentrations of 5β-pregnan-3α-17α-21-triol-20-one and 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (allopregnanolone). TGR5 stimulation in astrocytes and neurons is coupled to adenylate cyclase activation, elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) and the generation of reactive oxygen species. In cultured rat astrocytes, TGR5 mRNA is downregulated in the presence of neurosteroids and ammonia already at concentrations of 0.5 mmol L(-1). Furthermore, TGR5 protein levels are significantly reduced in isolated rat astrocytes after incubation with ammonia. A marked downregulation of TGR5 mRNA is also found in cerebral cortex from cirrhotic patients dying with hepatic encephalopathy (HE) when compared with brains from noncirrhotic control subjects. It is concluded that TGR5 is a novel neurosteroid receptor in brain with implications for the pathogenesis of HE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Keitel
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Infectiology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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Hov JR, Keitel V, Laerdahl JK, Spomer L, Ellinghaus E, ElSharawy A, Melum E, Boberg KM, Manke T, Balschun T, Schramm C, Bergquist A, Weismüller T, Gotthardt D, Rust C, Henckaerts L, Onnie CM, Weersma RK, Sterneck M, Teufel A, Runz H, Stiehl A, Ponsioen CY, Wijmenga C, Vatn MH, Stokkers PCF, Vermeire S, Mathew CG, Lie BA, Beuers U, Manns MP, Schreiber S, Schrumpf E, Häussinger D, Franke A, Karlsen TH. Mutational characterization of the bile acid receptor TGR5 in primary sclerosing cholangitis. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12403. [PMID: 20811628 PMCID: PMC2928275 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2010] [Accepted: 07/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background TGR5, the G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 (GPBAR1), has been linked to inflammatory pathways as well as bile homeostasis, and could therefore be involved in primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) a chronic inflammatory bile duct disease. We aimed to extensively investigate TGR5 sequence variation in PSC, as well as functionally characterize detected variants. Methodology/Principal Findings Complete resequencing of TGR5 was performed in 267 PSC patients and 274 healthy controls. Six nonsynonymous mutations were identified in addition to 16 other novel single-nucleotide polymorphisms. To investigate the impact from the nonsynonymous variants on TGR5, we created a receptor model, and introduced mutated TGR5 constructs into human epithelial cell lines. By using confocal microscopy, flow cytometry and a cAMP-sensitive luciferase assay, five of the nonsynonymous mutations (W83R, V178M, A217P, S272G and Q296X) were found to reduce or abolish TGR5 function. Fine-mapping of the previously reported PSC and UC associated locus at chromosome 2q35 in large patient panels revealed an overall association between the TGR5 single-nucleotide polymorphism rs11554825 and PSC (odds ratio = 1.14, 95% confidence interval: 1.03–1.26, p = 0.010) and UC (odds ratio = 1.19, 95% confidence interval 1.11–1.27, p = 8.5×10−7), but strong linkage disequilibrium precluded demarcation of TGR5 from neighboring genes. Conclusions/Significance Resequencing of TGR5 along with functional investigations of novel variants provided unique insight into an important candidate gene for several inflammatory and metabolic conditions. While significant TGR5 associations were detected in both UC and PSC, further studies are needed to conclusively define the role of TGR5 variation in these diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Aged
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Cattle
- Child
- Cholangitis, Sclerosing/complications
- Cholangitis, Sclerosing/genetics
- Cholangitis, Sclerosing/metabolism
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 2/genetics
- Colitis, Ulcerative/complications
- DNA Mutational Analysis
- Dogs
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Humans
- Male
- Mice
- Middle Aged
- Models, Molecular
- Mutation
- Protein Conformation
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/chemistry
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/genetics
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism
- Young Adult
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes R Hov
- Norwegian PSC Research Center, Clinic for Specialized Medicine and Surgery, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway.
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