Electroconvulsive therapy-induced volumetric brain changes converge on a common causal circuit in depression

Neurostimulation is a mainstream treatment option for major depression. Neuromodulation techniques apply repetitive magnetic or electrical stimulation to some neural target but significantly differ in their invasiveness, spatial selectivity, mechanism of action, and efficacy. Despite these differences, recent analyses of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and deep brain stimulation (DBS)-treated individuals converged on a common neural network that might have a causal role in treatment response. We set out to investigate if the neuronal underpinnings of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) are similarly associated with this causal depression network (CDN). Our aim here is to provide a comprehensive analysis in three cohorts of patients segregated by electrode placement (N = 246 with right unilateral, 79 with bitemporal, and 61 with mixed) who underwent ECT. We conducted a data-driven, unsupervised multivariate neuroimaging analysis Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the cortical and subcortical volume changes and electric field (EF) distribution to explore changes within the CDN associated with antidepressant outcomes. Despite the different treatment modalities (ECT vs TMS and DBS) and methodological approaches (structural vs functional networks), we found a highly similar pattern of change within the CDN in the three cohorts of patients (spatial similarity across 85 regions: r = 0.65, 0.58, 0.40, df = 83). Most importantly, the expression of this pattern correlated with clinical outcomes (t = -2.35, p = 0.019). This evidence further supports that treatment interventions converge on a CDN in depression. Optimizing modulation of this network could serve to improve the outcome of neurostimulation in depression.

Ictal and interictal SPECT with 99m Tc-HMPAO in presurgical epilepsy. II: Methodological considerations on hyper- and hypoperfusion

OBJECTIVE

Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) with the tracer 99m Tc-HMPAO is a method to visualize the cerebral hyperperfusion during an epileptic seizure and thus localize the epileptogenic zone and seizure propagation. Subtraction of interictal from Ictal SPECT Co-registered to MRI (SISCOM) visualizes areas with relative increases in cerebral blood flow. The purpose of this retrospective study is to explore the added value of visualizing areas of hypoperfusion as well as hyperperfusion, so-called reversed SISCOM.

METHODS

Fifty-six patients operated for epilepsy who had been investigated with SISCOM were included in the analysis. The patients were divided into two groups based on seizure duration after tracer injection, above or below 30 s. The preoperative SISCOM description was compared to the area of resection and given a concordance score. The 56 SISCOM were recalculated visualizing also areas of hypoperfusion and again compared to the site of resection using the same scale of concordance. The reversed SISCOM were categorized into three subgroups: "Altered Conclusion," "Confirmed Conclusion," and "Adds Nothing." If an area of hyperperfusion had an area of hypoperfusion in close proximity, it was re-interpreted as noise, thus possibly altering the conclusion. If the areas of hypoperfusion were in the opposite hemisphere it was interpreted as confirming factor. Further the concordance scores from conventional SISCOM and reversed SISCOM was compared to surgical outcome to explore the difference in sensitivity, positive predictive value (PPV), and odds ratio.

RESULTS

In approximately half of the cases reversed SISCOM added additional value, meaning either altered the conclusion or confirmed the conclusion. The sensitivity, PPV, and odds ratio was also better in the subgroup of long, >30 s seizure duration after injection, and got worse in the group with short, <30 s seizure duration after injection.

SIGNIFICANCE

Adding reversed SISCOM performed better than conventional SISCOM at predicting good surgical outcome.

Ictal and interictal SPECT with 99m Tc-HMPAO in presurgical epilepsy. I: Predictive value and methodological considerations

OBJECTIVE

This retrospective study investigates the predictive value of ictal subtraction single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) co-registered to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (SISCOM) for successful epilepsy surgery.

METHODS

57 patients examined with SISCOM as a part of epilepsy surgery evaluation were divided into two groups based on seizure duration after tracer injection (group 1: Seizure duration above or equal to 30 s, group 2: Seizure duration under 30 s). SISCOM was compared to the surgical site and categorized as good or poor concordance. Subsequently, Odds ratios (ORs) and positive predictive values (PPVs) were calculated for each group for good surgical outcome, freedom from disabling seizures.

RESULTS

The PPVs and ORs for good surgical outcome was 74.1% and 5.71 for group 1 and 40% and 0.22 for group 2. SISCOM had a similar positive predictive value regardless of whether the focus was in the same or neighboring lobe, but same hemisphere as the resection.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the implementation of a precise definition for a well-executed ictal SPECT scan with respect to seizure duration after injection enhances the positive predictive value (PPV) and odds ratio (OR) for successful surgical outcome, surpassing previous findings, whether the focus in resected lobe or the neighboring.

The history of Danish neuroscience

The history of Danish neuroscience starts with an account of impressive contributions made at the 17th century. Thomas Bartholin was the first Danish neuroscientist, and his disciple Nicolaus Steno became internationally one of the most prominent neuroscientists in this period. From the start, Danish neuroscience was linked to clinical disciplines. This continued in the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries with new initiatives linking basic neuroscience to clinical neurology and psychiatry in the same scientific environment. Subsequently, from the middle of the 20th century, basic neuroscience was developing rapidly within the preclinical university sector. Clinical neuroscience continued and was even reinforced during this period with important translational research and a close co-operation between basic and clinical neuroscience. To distinguish 'history' from 'present time' is not easy, as many historical events continue in present time. Therefore, we decided to consider 'History' as new major scientific developments in Denmark, which were launched before the end of the 20th century. With this aim, scientists mentioned will have been born, with a few exceptions, no later than the early 1960s. However, we often refer to more recent publications in documenting the developments of initiatives launched before the end of the last century. In addition, several scientists have moved to Denmark after the beginning of the present century, and they certainly are contributing to the present status of Danish neuroscience-but, again, this is not the History of Danish neuroscience.

Single-Voxel MR Spectroscopy of Gliomas with s-LASER at 7T

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)-a method of analysing metabolites in vivo-has been utilized in several studies of brain glioma biomarkers at lower field strengths. At ultra-high field strengths, MRS provides an improved signal-to-noise-ratio and spectral resolution, but 7T studies on patients with gliomas are sparse. The purpose of this exploratory study was to evaluate the potential clinical implication of the use of single-voxel MRS at 7T to assess metabolic information on lesions in a pilot cohort of patients with grade II and III gliomas.

METHODS

We scanned seven patients and seven healthy controls using the semi-localization by adiabatic-selective refocusing sequence on a Philips Achieva 7T system with a standard dual-transmit head coil. The metabolic ratios were calculated relative to water and total creatine. Additionally, 2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG) MRS was carried out in four of the patients, and the 2-HG concentration was calculated relative to water.

RESULTS

When comparing the tumour data to control regions in both patients and healthy controls, we found that the choline/creatine and myo-inositol/creatine ratios were significantly increased and that the N-acetylaspartate/creatine and the neurotransmitter glutamate/creatine ratios were significantly decreased. The N-acetylaspartate/water and glutamate/water ratios were also significantly decreased. The lactate/water and lactate/creatine ratios showed increases, although not significant. The GABA/water ratio was significantly decreased, but the GABA/creatine ratio was not. MRS spectra showed the presence of 2-HG in three of the four patients studied. Three of the patients, including the MRS 2-HG-negative patient, were operated on, and all of them had the IDH mutation.

CONCLUSION

Our findings were consistent with the existing literature on 3T and 7T MRS.

Delineation of Grade II and III Gliomas Investigated by 7T MRI: An Inter-Observer Pilot Study

PURPOSE

Diffuse low-grade gliomas (DLGGs) are low-malignancy brain tumors originating from the glial cells of the brain growing continuously and infiltratively along the neural axons and infiltrating the surrounding brain tissue. DLGGs usually transform into higher malignancy, causing progressive disability and premature death. MRI scans are valuable when assessing soft tissue abnormalities, but, due to the infiltrative properties of DLGGs, delineating the tumor borders is a challenging task. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the difference in gross tumor volume (GTV) of DLGGs delineated from 7 Tesla and 3 Tesla MRI scans.

METHOD

Patients were recruited at the department of neurosurgery and were scanned in both a 7T and a 3T MRI scanner prior to the operation. Two observers delineated the tumors using semi-automatic delineation software. The results from each observer were blinded to the other observer's delineation.

RESULTS

Comparing GTVs from 7T and 3T, the percentage difference varied up to 40.4% on the T2-weighted images. The percentage difference in GTV varied up to 15.3% on the fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) images. On the T2-weighted images, most cases varied by approximately 15%; on the FLAIR sequence, half of the cases varied by approximately 5% and the other half by approximately 15%. The overall inter-observer agreement was near perfect, with an intraclass correlation of 0.969. The intraclass correlation was better on the FLAIR sequence than on the T2 sequence.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the GTVs delineated from 7T images were smaller. The increase in field strength improved the inter-observer agreement only on the FLAIR sequence.

Neural Substrates of Psychotic Depression: Findings From the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration

Psychotic major depression (PMD) is hypothesized to be a distinct clinical entity from nonpsychotic major depression (NPMD). However, neurobiological evidence supporting this notion is scarce. The aim of this study is to identify gray matter volume (GMV) differences between PMD and NPMD and their longitudinal change following electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from 8 independent sites in the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration (GEMRIC) database (n = 108; 56 PMD and 52 NPMD; mean age 71.7 in PMD and 70.2 in NPMD) were analyzed. All participants underwent MRI before and after ECT. First, cross-sectional whole-brain voxel-wise GMV comparisons between PMD and NPMD were conducted at both time points. Second, in a flexible factorial model, a main effect of time and a group-by-time interaction were examined to identify longitudinal effects of ECT on GMV and longitudinal differential effects of ECT between PMD and NPMD, respectively. Compared with NPMD, PMD showed lower GMV in the prefrontal, temporal and parietal cortex before ECT; PMD showed lower GMV in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) after ECT. Although there was a significant main effect of time on GMV in several brain regions in both PMD and NPMD, there was no significant group-by-time interaction. Lower GMV in the MPFC was consistently identified in PMD, suggesting this may be a trait-like neural substrate of PMD. Longitudinal effect of ECT on GMV may not explain superior ECT response in PMD, and further investigation is needed.

Interictal pontine metabolism in migraine without aura patients: A 3 Tesla proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study

In the pons, glutamatergic mechanisms are involved in regulating inhibitory descending pain modulation, serotoninergic neurotransmission as well as modulating the sensory transmission of the trigeminovascular system. Migraine involves altered pontine activation and structural changes, while biochemical, genetic and clinical evidence suggests that altered interictal pontine glutamate levels may be an important pathophysiological feature of migraine abetting to attack initiation. Migraine without aura patients were scanned outside attacks using a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy protocol optimized for the pons at 3 Tesla. The measurements were performed on two separate days to increase accuracy and compared to similar repeated measurements in healthy controls. We found that interictal glutamate (i.e. Glx) levels in the pons of migraine patients (n = 33) were not different from healthy controls (n = 16) (p = 0.098), while total creatine levels were markedly increased in patients (9%, p = 0.009). There was no correlation of glutamate or total creatine levels to migraine frequency, days since the last attack, usual pain intensity of attacks or disease duration. In conclusion, migraine is not associated with altered interictal pontine glutamate levels. However, the novel finding of increased total creatine levels suggests that disequilibrium in the pontine energy metabolism could be an important feature of migraine pathophysiology.

Human Cerebral Perfusion, Oxygen Consumption, and Lactate Production in Response to Hypoxic Exposure

Exposure to moderate hypoxia in humans leads to cerebral lactate production, which occurs even when the cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen (CMRO2) is unaffected. We searched for the mechanism of this lactate production by testing the hypothesis of upregulation of cerebral glycolysis mediated by hypoxic sensing. Describing the pathways counteracting brain hypoxia could help us understand brain diseases associated with hypoxia. A total of 65 subjects participated in this study: 30 subjects were exposed to poikilocapnic hypoxia, 14 were exposed to isocapnic hypoxia, and 21 were exposed to carbon monoxide (CO). Using this setup, we examined whether lactate production reacts to an overall reduction in arterial oxygen concentration or solely to reduced arterial oxygen partial pressure. We measured cerebral blood flow (CBF), CMRO2, and lactate concentrations by magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy. CBF increased (P < 10-4), whereas the CMRO2 remained unaffected (P > 0.076) in all groups, as expected. Lactate increased in groups inhaling hypoxic air (poikilocapnic hypoxia: $0.0136\ \frac{\mathrm{mmol}/\mathrm{L}}{\Delta{\mathrm{S}}_{\mathrm{a}}{\mathrm{O}}_2}$, P < 10-6; isocapnic hypoxia: $0.0142\ \frac{\mathrm{mmol}/\mathrm{L}}{\Delta{\mathrm{S}}_{\mathrm{a}}{\mathrm{O}}_2}$, P = 0.003) but was unaffected by CO (P = 0.36). Lactate production was not associated with reduced CMRO2. These results point toward a mechanism of lactate production by upregulation of glycolysis mediated by sensing a reduced arterial oxygen pressure. The released lactate may act as a signaling molecule engaged in vasodilation.

Elevated body weight modulates subcortical volume change and associated clinical response following electroconvulsive therapy

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a frequent somatic comorbidity of major depression, and it has been associated with worse clinical outcomes and brain structural abnormalities. Converging evidence suggests that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) induces both clinical improvements and increased subcortical grey matter volume in patients with depression. However, it remains unknown whether increased body weight modulates the clinical response and structural neuroplasticity that occur with ECT.

METHODS

To address this question, we conducted a longitudinal investigation of structural MRI data from the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration (GEMRIC) in 223 patients who were experiencing a major depressive episode (10 scanning sites). Structural MRI data were acquired before and after ECT, and we assessed change in subcortical grey matter volume using FreeSurfer and Quarc.

RESULTS

Higher body mass index (BMI) was associated with a significantly lower increase in subcortical grey matter volume following ECT. We observed significant negative associations between BMI and change in subcortical grey matter volume, with pronounced effects in the thalamus and putamen, where obese participants showed increases in grey matter volume that were 43.3% and 49.6%, respectively, of the increases found in participants with normal weight. As well, BMI significantly moderated the association between subcortical grey matter volume change and clinical response to ECT. We observed no significant association between BMI and clinical response to ECT.

LIMITATIONS

Because only baseline BMI values were available, we were unable to study BMI changes during ECT and their potential association with clinical and grey matter volume change.

CONCLUSION

Future studies should take into account the relevance of body weight as a modulator of structural neuroplasticity during ECT treatment and aim to further explore the functional relevance of this novel finding.

Blood pressure and brain injury in cardiac surgery: a secondary analysis of a randomized trial

OBJECTIVES

Brain dysfunction is a serious complication after cardiac surgery. In the Perfusion Pressure Cerebral Infarcts trial, we allocated cardiac surgery patients to a mean arterial pressure of either 70-80 or 40-50 mmHg during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). In this secondary analysis, we compared selected cerebral metabolites using magnetic resonance spectroscopy hypothesizing that a postoperative decrease in occipital grey matter (GM) N-acetylaspartate-to-total-creatine ratio, indicative of ischaemic injury, would be found in the high-target group.

METHODS

Of the 197 patients randomized in the Perfusion Pressure Cerebral Infarcts trial, 55 and 42 patients had complete and useful data from GM and white matter (WM), respectively. Spectroscopies were done preoperatively and on postoperative days 3-6. Cognitive function was assessed prior to surgery, at discharge and at 3 months. We predefined the statistical significance level to be 0.01.

RESULTS

A postoperative decrease was found in GM N-acetylaspartate-to-total-creatine ratio in the high-target group [mean difference -0.09 (95% confidence interval -0.14 to -0.04), P = 0.014]. No significant differences were found in other metabolite ratios investigated in GM or WM. No significant association was found between changes in metabolite ratios and new cerebral infarcts, WM lesion score or cognitive dysfunction.

CONCLUSIONS

A higher mean arterial pressure during CPB was associated with signs of impaired cerebral metabolism, though not at the predefined significance level of 0.01. No significant association was found between metabolite ratio changes and neuroradiological pathology or change in cognitive function.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT02185885.

Glutamate levels and perfusion in pons during migraine attacks: A 3T MRI study using proton spectroscopy and arterial spin labeling

Migraine is a complex disorder, involving peripheral and central brain structures, where mechanisms and site of attack initiation are an unresolved puzzle. While abnormal pontine neuronal activation during migraine attacks has been reported, exact implication of this finding is unknown. Evidence suggests an important role of glutamate in migraine, implying a possible association of pontine hyperactivity to increased glutamate levels. Migraine without aura patients were scanned during attacks after calcitonin gene-related peptide and sildenafil in a double-blind, randomized, double-dummy, cross-over design, on two separate study days, by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy and pseudo-continuous arterial spin labeling at 3T. Headache characteristics were recorded until 24 h after drug administrations. Twenty-six patients were scanned during migraine, yielding a total of 41 attacks. Cerebral blood flow increased in dorsolateral pons, ipsilateral to pain side during attacks, compared to outside attacks (13.6%, p = 0.009). Glutamate levels in the same area remained unchanged during attacks (p = 0.873), while total creatine levels increased (3.5%, p = 0.041). In conclusion, dorsolateral pontine activation during migraine was not associated with higher glutamate levels. However, the concurrently increased total creatine levels may suggest an altered energy metabolism, which should be investigated in future studies to elucidate the role of pons in acute migraine.

Transcranial low-frequency pulsating electromagnetic fields (T-PEMF) as post-concussion syndrome treatment

Background

Treatment options for the subgroup of people who develop long‐lasting symptoms following mild traumatic brain injury are limited. Transcranial pulsating low‐frequency electromagnetic stimulation (T‐PEMF) in other patient groups has shown promising results in several studies with proposed neuroprotective and anti‐inflammatory effects.

Objective

The present pilot study was conducted to access feasibility and tolerability of T‐PEMF in treating post‐concussion syndrome.

Methods

Seven patients with post‐concussion syndrome received 5 weeks of daily 30 minutes T‐PEMF treatment with evaluation after 2 and 5 weeks and 3 months after ending treatment.

Results

Compliance was high as all subject completed the full treatment. Two patients however experienced a worsening of their concussion symptoms during the course of treatment. The remaining patients had some discomfort in relation to treatment, mainly headache, but passing and less for each treatment. The majority (n = 5) had a reduction in symptoms overall, up to 61% (2%‐61%) based on the Rivermead Post‐Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire.

Conclusion

Further studies on T‐PEMF as a treatment option for post‐concussion syndrome are warranted.

Feasibility of Glutamate and GABA Detection in Pons and Thalamus at 3T and 7T by Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Glutamate detection in pons and thalamus using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) after an intervention is of interest for studying various brain disorders. However, ¹H-MRS in these brain regions is challenging and time-consuming, especially in longitudinal study designs. ¹H-MRS of more cortical structures at the ultrahigh magnetic field strength of 7T yields an improved spectral output, including separation of the glutamate signal from the glutamine signal, in a shorter and more feasible scan time, as compared to conventional clinical field strengths. For this purpose, we compared the feasibility of ¹H-MRS at 3T and 7T in pons and thalamus by applying a longitudinal study design of repeated measures on same day and three separate days at both field strength in five healthy participants. Total ¹H-MRS acquisition time was reduced by a factor 3.75 for pons and by a factor 3 for thalamus at 7T as compared to 3T. We found higher spectral signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) (p < 0.001), lower linewidth (p = 0.001) and lower Cramér–Rao lower bounds (CRLB) (p < 0.001) for the combined glutamate and glutamine signal (Glx) in thalamus at 7T as compared to 3T. In pons, CRLB of Glx and SNR were lower at 7T (p = 0.002 and p = 0.006), with no differences in linewidth compared to 3T. Mean within-subject variability of Glx concentration estimates was lower at 7T compared to 3T for both pons and thalamus. At 7T, it was possible to assess glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) simultaneously in pons and thalamus. In conclusion, ¹H-MRS at 7T resulted in improved spectral quality while allowing shorter scan times than at 3T as well as estimation of the pure glutamate signal in pons and thalamus. This opens up the opportunity for multimodal study designs and multiregional subcortical ¹H-MRS research. Glutamate and GABA measurement at 7T in pons and thalamus is advantageous for future investigations of excitatory–inhibitory mechanisms in brain disorders.

Cigarette smoking and cerebral blood flow in a cohort of middle-aged adults

Cigarette smoking increases cerebral blood flow. Both nicotine and carbon monoxide contribute to the flow increase. Due to carbon monoxide’s high affinity to hemoglobin and slow clearance from the blood, the effect lasts for hours. Nicotine also stays in the organism for some hours. This immediate effect of smoking may explain a recently observed higher cerebral blood flow in current-smokers as compared to former-smokers.

No effect of the angiotensin receptor blocker candesartan on cerebrovascular autoregulation in rats during very high and low sodium intake

Autoregulation of cerebral blood flow (CBF) denotes that CBF is constant despite fluctuation of blood pressure within wide limits. Inhibition of the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) is known to decrease the lower and upper limits of CBF autoregulation. We have previously shown that this includes inhibition by the angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) candesartan. In the present study we investigated the influence of the ARB candesartan on the lower limit of CBF autoregulation in two groups of Sprague-Dawley rats, on high (4.0% Na⁺) and low (0.004% Na⁺) sodium diet, respectively. Control animals were given the same diet, but no ARB. CBF was studied with the laser Doppler method. Blood pressure was lowered by controlled bleeding. Results revealed that both high and low sodium diet with low and high renin levels respectively block the influence of candesartan on CBF autoregulation. This was expected in rats on a high salt diet with a low renin level, but unexpected in rats with a low salt intake with a high renin level.

Brain Changes Induced by Electroconvulsive Therapy Are Broadly Distributed

BACKGROUND

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is associated with volumetric enlargements of corticolimbic brain regions. However, the pattern of whole-brain structural alterations following ECT remains unresolved. Here, we examined the longitudinal effects of ECT on global and local variations in gray matter, white matter, and ventricle volumes in patients with major depressive disorder as well as predictors of ECT-related clinical response.

METHODS

Longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging and clinical data from the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration (GEMRIC) were used to investigate changes in white matter, gray matter, and ventricle volumes before and after ECT in 328 patients experiencing a major depressive episode. In addition, 95 nondepressed control subjects were scanned twice. We performed a mega-analysis of single subject data from 14 independent GEMRIC sites.

RESULTS

Volumetric increases occurred in 79 of 84 gray matter regions of interest. In total, the cortical volume increased by mean ± SD of 1.04 ± 1.03% (Cohen's d = 1.01, p < .001) and the subcortical gray matter volume increased by 1.47 ± 1.05% (d = 1.40, p < .001) in patients. The subcortical gray matter increase was negatively associated with total ventricle volume (Spearman's rank correlation ρ = -.44, p < .001), while total white matter volume remained unchanged (d = -0.05, p = .41). The changes were modulated by number of ECTs and mode of electrode placements. However, the gray matter volumetric enlargements were not associated with clinical outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that ECT induces gray matter volumetric increases that are broadly distributed. However, gross volumetric increases of specific anatomically defined regions may not serve as feasible biomarkers of clinical response.

Diagnostic yield of high-density versus low-density EEG: The effect of spatial sampling, timing and duration of recording

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of spatial sampling and of recording duration on the diagnostic yield of EEG for identification of interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs). Previous studies demonstrated that high-density (HD) recordings increased accuracy of localization compared to low-density (LD) recordings.

METHODS

We have prospectively evaluated the effect of spatial sampling and of recording duration in patients who had short-term (ST) recordings with a HD array of 256 electrodes following long-term (LT) recordings with a LD array consisting of the standard IFCN array of 25 electrodes. IED clusters were identified in four datasets: LT-LD, ST-LD (spatially down-sampled to the standard IFCN array), ST-HD and a shortened (90 minutes) epoch of LT-LD.

RESULTS

Sixty consecutive patients were recruited. We identified 89 IED clusters totally. Two clusters were found by increasing spatial sampling from 25 to 256 electrodes. This modest increase was not statistically significant. Eight clusters were missed by reducing the recording duration to 90 minutes, as compared with the LT recordings (p = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

Recording duration is more important for the diagnostic yield of EEGs than increasing spatial sampling beyond the standard IFCN electrode array.

SIGNIFICANCE

The standard IFCN electrode array provides sufficient spatial sampling for identification of the IEDs.

Domain-specific cognitive dysfunction after cardiac surgery. A secondary analysis of a randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Brain injury and cognitive dysfunction are serious complications after cardiac surgery. In the perfusion pressure cerebral infarcts (PPCI) trial, we allocated cardiac surgery patients to a mean arterial pressure of either 70-80 mm Hg (high-target) or 40-50 mm Hg (low-target) during cardiopulmonary bypass. In this secondary analysis, we aimed to assess potential differences in domain-specific patterns of cognitive deterioration between allocation groups and to investigate any associations of postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) with diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DWI)-detected brain lesions.

METHODS

Of the 197 patients randomized in the PPCI trial, 89 in the low-target group and 80 in the high-target group had complete DWI datasets, and 92 and 80 patients had complete data for an evaluation of cognitive function at discharge respectively. Cognitive function was assessed prior to surgery, at discharge and at 3 months. DWI was obtained at baseline and on postoperative days 3 to 6.

RESULTS

We found no statistically significant differences between the two groups when comparing the proportion of patients with a domain-specific deterioration over the pre-defined critical level in seven individual test variables at discharge. Significant deterioration was most common in tests thought to assess cognitive flexibility and interference susceptibility and least common in the memory test. POCD at discharge was more frequent in patients with DWI-positive brain lesions (OR adjusted for age and group allocation: 2.24 [95% CI 1.48-3.00], P = 0.036).

CONCLUSIONS

Domain-specific patterns of POCD were comparable between groups. A significant association was seen between DWI-positive brain lesions and POCD.

The association between postoperative cognitive dysfunction and cerebral oximetry during cardiac surgery: a secondary analysis of a randomised trial

BACKGROUND

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) occurs commonly after cardiac surgery. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has been used to monitor regional cerebral oxygen saturation (rScO₂) in order to minimise the occurrence of POCD by applying dedicated interventions when rScO₂ decreases. However, the association between rScO₂ intraoperatively and POCD has not been clarified.

METHODS

This is a secondary analysis of a randomised trial with physician-blinded NIRS monitoring and cognitive testing at discharge from hospital and at 3 months after surgery. The association between intraoperative rScO₂ values and POCD at discharge from hospital and at 3 months after surgery was investigated. The prespecified candidate predictive variable of interest was cumulative time during surgery with rScO₂ ≥10% below its preoperative value.

RESULTS

One hundred and fifty-three patients had complete NIRS data and neurocognitive assessments at discharge, and 44 of these patients (29%) had POCD. At 3 months, 148 patients had complete data, and 12 (8%) of these patients had POCD. The median time with rScO₂ >10% below preoperative values did not differ for patients with and without POCD at discharge (difference=0.0 min; Hodges-Lehmann 95% confidence interval, -3.11-1.47, P=0.88). Other rScO₂ time thresholds that were assessed were also not significantly different between those with and without POCD at discharge. This applied both to absolute rScO₂ values and relative changes from preoperative values. Similar results were found in relation to POCD at 3 months.

CONCLUSIONS

No significant association was found between intraoperative rScO₂ values and POCD. These findings bring into question the rationale for attempting to avoid decreases in rScO₂ if the goal is to prevent POCD.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT02185885.

Previous glucocorticoid treatment in childhood and adolescence is associated with long-term differences in subcortical grey matter volume and microstructure

BACKGROUND

Glucocorticoids are widely used in the treatment of several pediatric diseases with undisputed disease-related benefits. Perinatal exposure to high levels of glucocorticoids can have long-term adverse cerebral effects. In adults, glucocorticoid treatment has been associated with smaller volumes of subcortical grey matter structures. Recently, we observed smaller total brain volumes in children and adolescents treated with glucocorticoid during childhood compared to healthy controls. The possible long-term effects of glucocorticoid treatment during childhood on subcortical brain volume and microstructure remain unknown.

METHOD

We examined 30 children and adolescents, who had previously been treated with glucocorticoids for nephrotic syndrome or rheumatic disease, and 30 healthy volunteers. Patients and healthy control groups were matched by age, gender, and level of parent education. Participants underwent 3 T magnetic resonance (MR) brain imaging. T1-weighted and diffusion-weighted images were acquired. Volume and mean diffusivity (MD) measures were extracted for hippocampus, amygdala, nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus and putamen. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to assess differences between patients and controls, and to evaluate possible dose-response relationships. A priori, we expected patients to display lower hippocampal and amygdala volumes.

RESULTS

While children previously treated with glucocorticoids displayed smaller right hippocampal volumes than controls, this difference did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. Furthermore, patients as compared to controls showed lower right hippocampal MD, which remained when correcting for global changes in MD. The longer the time between the glucocorticoid treatment termination and MR-scan, the more right hippocampal MD values resembled that of healthy controls. Patient and controls did not differ in amygdala volume or MD. Analyses of the nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus and putamen only revealed smaller putamen volumes in patients compared to controls, which remained significant when controlling for total brain volume.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that extra-cerebral diseases during childhood treated with glucocorticoids may be associated with reduced subcortical grey matter volumes and lower right hippocampal mean diffusivity later in life. Our findings warrant replication and elaboration in larger, preferably prospective and longitudinal studies. Such studies may also allow disentangling disease-specific effects from possible glucocorticoid treatment effects.

Neuroticism predicts the impact of serotonin challenges on fear processing in subgenual anterior cingulate cortex

The personality trait neuroticism is associated with increased vulnerability to anxiety and mood disorders, conditions linked with abnormal serotonin neurotransmission and emotional processing. The interaction between neuroticism and serotonin during emotional processing is however not understood. Here we investigate how individual neuroticism scores influence the neural response to negative emotional faces and their sensitivity to serotonergic tone. Twenty healthy participants performed an emotional face task under functional MRI on three occasions: increased serotonin tone following infusion of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), decreased serotonin tone following acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) protocol, and no serotonin challenge (control). During the task, participants performed a gender-discrimination task of neutral, fearful or angry facial expressions. Individual variations in neuroticism scores were associated with neural response of subgenual anterior cingulate cortex to fearful facial expressions. The association was however opposite under the two serotoninergic challenges. The fear-related response in this region and individual neuroticism scores correlated negatively during citalopram challenge and positively during ATD. Thus, neuroticism scores were associated with the relative impact of serotonin challenges on fear processing in subgenual anterior cingulate cortex. This finding may link to a neural mechanism for the variable therapeutic effect of SSRI treatment observed in clinical populations.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid edited echo-planar spectroscopic imaging (EPSI) with MEGA-sLASER at 7T

PURPOSE

For rapid spatial mapping of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at the increased sensitivity and spectral separation for ultra-high magnetic field strength (7 tesla [T]), an accelerated edited magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging technique was developed and optimized for the human brain at 7 T.

METHODS

A MEGA-sLASER sequence was used for GABA editing and volume selection to maximize editing efficiency and minimize chemical shift displacement errors. To accommodate the high bandwidth requirements at 7 T, a single-shot echo planar readout was used for rapid simultaneous encoding of the temporal dimension and 1 spatial. B₀ and B₁ field aspects specific for 7 T were studied together with correction procedures, and feasibility of the EPSI MEGA-sLASER technique was tested in vivo in 5 healthy subjects.

RESULTS

Localized edited spectra could be measured in all subjects giving spatial GABA signal distributions over a central brain region, having 45- to 50-Hz spatial intervoxel B₀ field variations and up to 30% B₁ field deviations. MEGA editing was found unaffected by the B₀ inhomogeneities for the optimized sequence. The correction procedures reduced effects of intervoxel B₀ inhomogeneities, corrected for spatial editing efficiency variations, and compensated for GABA resonance phase and frequency shifts from subtle motion and acquisition instabilities. The optimized oscillating echo-planar gradient scheme permitted full spectral acquisition at 7 T and exhibited minimal spectral-spatial ghosting effects for the selected brain region.

CONCLUSION

The EPSI MEGA-sLASER technique was shown to provide time-efficient mapping of regional variations in cerebral GABA in a central volume of interest with spatial B₁ and B₀ field variations typical for 7 T.

Effect of electroconvulsive therapy on neural response to affective pictures: A randomized, sham-controlled fMRI study

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the most effective treatment for severe depression but its neurocognitive mechanisms are unclear. This randomized, sham-controlled functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study explored the effects of a single ECT on neural response to affective pictures. Twenty-seven patients with major depressive disorder were randomized to a single active ECT (N = 15) or sham (N = 12) session in a double-blind, parallel-group design. On the following day, patients underwent fMRI during which they viewed pleasant, unpleasant and neutral pictures and performed a free recall test after the scan. Mood symptoms were assessed before ECT/sham and at the time of fMRI. Subsequently, all patients continued active ECT as usual. Mood symptoms were reassessed after six active ECT sessions. A single ECT vs. sham session reduced neural response to unpleasant vs. pleasant pictures in the medial prefrontal cortex, a region showing greater response in the more depressed patients. This effect occurred in the absence of between-group differences in picture recall, mood symptoms or concomitant medication. In conclusion, modulation of medial prefrontal hyper-activity during encoding of negative affective information may be a common mechanism of distinct biological depression treatments.

Verbal learning and memory outcome in selective amygdalohippocampectomy versus temporal lobe resection in patients with hippocampal sclerosis

PURPOSE

With the advent of new very selective techniques like thermal laser ablation to treat drug-resistant focal epilepsy, the controversy of resection size in relation to seizure outcome versus cognitive deficits has gained new relevance. The purpose of this study was to test the influence of the selective amygdalohippocampectomy (SAH) versus nonselective temporal lobe resection (TLR) on seizure outcome and cognition in patients with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) and histopathological verified hippocampal sclerosis (HS).

METHODS

We identified 108 adults (>16years) with HS, operated between 1995 and 2009 in Denmark. Exclusion criteria are the following: Intelligence below normal range, right hemisphere dominance, other native languages than Danish, dual pathology, and missing follow-up data. Thus, 56 patients were analyzed. The patients were allocated to SAH (n=22) or TLR (n=34) based on intraoperative electrocorticography. Verbal learning and verbal memory were tested pre- and postsurgery.

RESULTS

Seizure outcome did not differ between patients operated using the SAH versus the TLR at 1year (p=0.951) nor at 7years (p=0.177). Verbal learning was more affected in patients resected in the left hemisphere than in the right (p=0.002). In patients with left-sided TLR, a worsening in verbal memory performance was found (p=0.011). Altogether, 73% were seizure-free for 1year and 64% for 7years after surgery.

CONCLUSION

In patients with drug-resistant focal MTLE, HS and no magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) signs of dual pathology, selective amygdalohippocampectomy results in sustained seizure freedom and better memory function compared with patients operated with nonselective temporal lobe resection.

Parieto–Occipital Areas Involved in Efficient Filtering in Search: A Time Course Analysis of Visual Marking using Behavioural and Functional Imaging Procedures

Search for a colour–form conjunction target can be facilitated by presenting one set of distractors prior to the second set of distractors and the target: the preview benefit (Watson & Humphreys, 1997). The early presentation of one set of distractors enables them to be efficiently filtered from search. We report two studies investigating the time course of the preview benefit. In Experiment 1 we use a standard reaction time analysis to show that the benefit has a relatively slow time course; old items need to precede the new set by 600 ms or more in order to be fully filtered from search. Furthermore, the reductions in reaction time across time in the preview condition varied nonlinearly with the display size, suggesting that old items were discounted from search in parallel. In Experiment 2 we examined the neural locus of this filtering effect over time, using positron emission tomography (PET). We show that regions of parieto–occipital cortex are selectively activated in a preview search condition relative to a detection baseline. These regions also increase in activation as the preview interval increases (and search then becomes easier), consistent with them modulating the parallel filtering of distractors from targets in spatial search. Interestingly, the same areas as those activated in preview search were also active in conjunction search relative to its own detection baseline. Thus these regions either modulate parallel filtering in conjunction search too, or they modulate different behavioural functions according to task constraints.

Neural Response After a Single ECT Session During Retrieval of Emotional Self-Referent Words in Depression: A Randomized, Sham-Controlled fMRI Study

BACKGROUND

Negative neurocognitive bias is a core feature of depression that is reversed by antidepressant drug treatment. However, it is unclear whether modulation of neurocognitive bias is a common mechanism of distinct biological treatments. This randomized controlled functional magnetic resonance imaging study explored the effects of a single electroconvulsive therapy session on self-referent emotional processing.

METHODS

Twenty-nine patients with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder were randomized to one active or sham electroconvulsive therapy session at the beginning of their electroconvulsive therapy course in a double-blind, between-groups design. The following day, patients were given a self-referential emotional word categorization test and a free recall test. This was followed by an incidental word recognition task during whole-brain functional magnetic resonance imaging at 3T. Mood was assessed at baseline, on the functional magnetic resonance imaging day, and after 6 electroconvulsive therapy sessions. Data were complete and analyzed for 25 patients (electroconvulsive therapy: n = 14, sham: n = 11). The functional magnetic resonance imaging data were analyzed using the FMRIB Software Library randomize algorithm, and the Threshold-Free Cluster Enhancement method was used to identify significant clusters (corrected at P < .05).

RESULTS

A single electroconvulsive therapy session had no effect on hippocampal activity during retrieval of emotional words. However, electroconvulsive therapy reduced the retrieval-specific neural response for positive words in the left frontopolar cortex. This effect occurred in the absence of differences between groups in behavioral performance or mood symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed effect of electroconvulsive therapy on prefrontal response may reflect early facilitation of memory for positive self-referent information, which could contribute to improvements in depressive symptoms including feelings of self-worth with repeated treatments.

Glucocorticoid treatment earlier in childhood and adolescence show dose-response associations with diurnal cortisol levels

Heightened levels of glucocorticoids in children and adolescents have previously been linked to prolonged changes in the diurnal regulation of the stress-hormone cortisol, a glucocorticoid regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis (HPA-axis). To address this question, we examined the salivary cortisol awakening response (CAR) and daily cortisol output in 36 children and adolescents (25 girls/11 boys) aged 7-16 years previously treated with glucocorticoids for nephrotic syndrome or rheumatic disorder and 36 healthy controls. Patients and controls did not significantly differ in the CAR or diurnal cortisol output; however, sex-dependent group differences were observed. Specifically, female patients had a higher CAR relative to female controls, while male patients had higher daily cortisol levels compared to male controls. Notably, CAR in female patients and daily cortisol levels in male patients showed a positive linear relationship with the mean daily glucocorticoid doses administered during treatment. The observed dose-response associations suggest that glucocorticoid therapy during childhood and adolescence might trigger long-term changes in HPA-axis regulation, which may differ for males and females.

Does a single session of electroconvulsive therapy alter the neural response to emotional faces in depression? A randomised sham-controlled functional magnetic resonance imaging study

Negative neurocognitive bias is a core feature of major depressive disorder that is reversed by pharmacological and psychological treatments. This double-blind functional magnetic resonance imaging study investigated for the first time whether electroconvulsive therapy modulates negative neurocognitive bias in major depressive disorder. Patients with major depressive disorder were randomised to one active ( n=15) or sham electroconvulsive therapy ( n=12). The following day they underwent whole-brain functional magnetic resonance imaging at 3T while viewing emotional faces and performed facial expression recognition and dot-probe tasks. A single electroconvulsive therapy session had no effect on amygdala response to emotional faces. Whole-brain analysis revealed no effects of electroconvulsive therapy versus sham therapy after family-wise error correction at the cluster level, using a cluster-forming threshold of Z>3.1 ( p<0.001) to secure family-wise error <5%. Groups showed no differences in behavioural measures, mood and medication. Exploratory cluster-corrected whole-brain analysis ( Z>2.3; p<0.01) revealed electroconvulsive therapy-induced changes in parahippocampal and superior frontal responses to fearful versus happy faces as well as in fear-specific functional connectivity between amygdala and occipito-temporal regions. Across all patients, greater fear-specific amygdala - occipital coupling correlated with lower fear vigilance. Despite no statistically significant shift in neural response to faces after a single electroconvulsive therapy session, the observed trend changes after a single electroconvulsive therapy session point to an early shift in emotional processing that may contribute to antidepressant effects of electroconvulsive therapy.

Imaging Regional Metabolic Changes in the Ischemic Rat Heart In Vivo Using Hyperpolarized [1-13C]Pyruvate

We evaluated the use of hyperpolarized ¹³C magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in an open-chest rat model of myocardial infarction to image regional changes in myocardial metabolism. In total, 10 rats were examined before and after 30 minutes of occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery using hyperpolarized [1-¹³C]pyruvate. Cardiac metabolic images of [1-¹³C]pyruvate and its metabolites [1-¹³C]lactate, [1-¹³C]alanine, and [¹³C]bicarbonate were obtained before and after ischemia. Significant reduction in the [1-¹³C]alanine and [1-¹³C]lactate signals were observed in the ischemic region post ischemia. The severity of the ischemic insult was verified by increased blood levels of troponin I and by using late contrast-enhanced MRI that showed enhanced signal in the ischemic region. This study shows that hyperpolarized MRI can be used to image regional metabolic changes in the in vivo rat heart in an open-chest model of ischemia reperfusion. Hyperpolarized MRI enables new possibilities for evaluating changes in cardiac metabolism noninvasively and in real time, which potentially could be used for research to evaluate new treatments and metabolic interventions for myocardial ischemia and to apply knowledge to future application of the technique in humans.

Effects of erythropoietin on memory-relevant neurocircuitry activity and recall in mood disorders

OBJECTIVE

Erythropoietin (EPO) improves verbal memory and reverses subfield hippocampal volume loss across depression and bipolar disorder (BD). This study aimed to investigate with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) whether these effects were accompanied by functional changes in memory-relevant neuro-circuits in this cohort.

METHOD

Eighty-four patients with treatment-resistant unipolar depression who were moderately depressed or BD in remission were randomized to eight weekly EPO (40 000 IU) or saline infusions in a double-blind, parallel-group design. Participants underwent whole-brain fMRI at 3T, mood ratings, and blood tests at baseline and week 14. During fMRI, participants performed a picture encoding task followed by postscan recall.

RESULTS

Sixty-two patients had complete data (EPO: N = 32, saline: N = 30). EPO improved picture recall and increased encoding-related activity in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and temporo-parietal regions, but not in hippocampus. Recall correlated with activity in the identified dlPFC and temporo-parietal regions at baseline, and change in recall correlated with activity change in these regions from baseline to follow-up across the entire cohort. The effects of EPO were not correlated with change in mood, red blood cells, blood pressure, or medication.

CONCLUSION

The findings highlight enhanced encoding-related dlPFC and temporo-parietal activity as key neuronal underpinnings of EPO-associated memory improvement.

Neural correlates of improved executive function following erythropoietin treatment in mood disorders

BACKGROUND

Cognitive dysfunction in depression and bipolar disorder (BD) is insufficiently targeted by available treatments. Erythropoietin (EPO) increases neuroplasticity and may improve cognition in mood disorders, but the neuronal mechanisms of these effects are unknown. This functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study investigated the effects of EPO on neural circuitry activity during working memory (WM) performance.

METHOD

Patients with treatment-resistant major depression, who were moderately depressed, or with BD in partial remission, were randomized to eight weekly infusions of EPO (40 000 IU) (N = 30) or saline (N = 26) in a double-blind, parallel-group design. Patients underwent fMRI, mood ratings and blood tests at baseline and week 14. During fMRI patients performed an n-back WM task.

RESULTS

EPO improved WM accuracy compared with saline (p = 0.045). Whole-brain analyses revealed that EPO increased WM load-related activity in the right superior frontal gyrus (SFG) compared with saline (p = 0.01). There was also enhanced WM load-related deactivation of the left hippocampus in EPO-treated compared to saline-treated patients (p = 0.03). Across the entire sample, baseline to follow-up changes in WM performance correlated positively with changes in WM-related SFG activity and negatively with hippocampal response (r = 0.28-0.30, p < 0.05). The effects of EPO were not associated with changes in mood or red blood cells (p ⩾0.08).

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings associate changes in WM-load related activity in the right SFG and left hippocampus with improved executive function in EPO-treated patients.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

clinicaltrials.gov: NCT00916552.

Perfusion Pressure Cerebral Infarct (PPCI) trial - the importance of mean arterial pressure during cardiopulmonary bypass to prevent cerebral complications after cardiac surgery: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

Background

Debilitating brain injury occurs in 1.6–5 % of patients undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging studies have reported stroke-like lesions in up to 51 % of patients after cardiac surgery. The majority of the lesions seem to be caused by emboli, but inadequate blood flow caused by other mechanisms may increase ischaemia in the penumbra or cause watershed infarcts. During cardiopulmonary bypass, blood pressure can be below the lower limit of cerebral autoregulation. Although much debated, the constant blood flow provided by the cardiopulmonary bypass system is still considered by many as appropriate to avoid cerebral ischaemia despite the low blood pressure.

Methods/design

The Perfusion Pressure Cerebral Infarct trial is a single-centre superiority trial with a blinded outcome assessment. The trial is randomising 210 patients with coronary vessel and/or valve disease and who are undergoing cardiac surgery with the use of cardiopulmonary bypass. Patients are stratified by age and surgical procedure and are randomised 1:1 to either an increased mean arterial pressure (70–80 mmHg) or ‘usual practice’ (40–50 mmHg) during cardiopulmonary bypass.

The cardiopulmonary bypass pump flow is fixed and set at 2.4 L/minute/m² body surface area plus 10–20 % in both groups.

The primary outcome measure is the volume of the new ischaemic cerebral lesions (in mL), expressed as the difference between a baseline, diffusion-weighted, magnetic resonance imaging scan and an equal scan conducted 3–6 days postoperatively. Secondary endpoints are the total number of new ischaemic cerebral lesions, postoperative cognitive dysfunction at discharge and 3 months postoperatively, diffuse cerebral injury evaluated by magnetic resonance spectroscopy and selected biochemical markers of cerebral injury.

The sample size will enable us to detect a 50 % reduction in the primary outcome measure in the intervention compared to the control group at a significance level of 0.05 and with a power of 0.80.

Discussion

This is the first clinical randomised study to evaluate whether the mean arterial pressure level during cardiopulmonary bypass influences the development of brain injuries that are detected by diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02185885. Registered on 7 July 2014.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1373-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Regional brain volumes, diffusivity, and metabolite changes after electroconvulsive therapy for severe depression

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the role of hippocampal plasticity in the antidepressant effect of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).

METHOD

We used magnetic resonance (MR) imaging including diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and proton MR spectroscopy (¹ H-MRS) to investigate hippocampal volume, diffusivity, and metabolite changes in 19 patients receiving ECT for severe depression. Other regions of interest included the amygdala, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), orbitofrontal cortex, and hypothalamus. Patients received a 3T MR scan before ECT (TP1), 1 week (TP2), and 4 weeks (TP3) after ECT.

RESULTS

Hippocampal and amygdala volume increased significantly at TP2 and continued to be increased at TP3. DLPFC exhibited a transient volume reduction at TP2. DTI revealed a reduced anisotropy and diffusivity of the hippocampus at TP2. We found no significant post-ECT changes in brain metabolite concentrations, and we were unable to identify a spectral signature at ≈1.30 ppm previously suggested to reflect neurogenesis induced by ECT. None of the brain imaging measures correlated to the clinical response.

CONCLUSION

Our findings show that ECT causes a remodeling of brain structures involved in affective regulation, but due to their lack of correlation with the antidepressant effect, this remodeling does not appear to be directly underlying the antidepressant action of ECT.

Effects of Erythropoietin on Hippocampal Volume and Memory in Mood Disorders

BACKGROUND

Persistent cognitive dysfunction in depression and bipolar disorder (BD) impedes patients' functional recovery. Erythropoietin (EPO) increases neuroplasticity and reduces cognitive difficulties in treatment-resistant depression (TRD) and remitted BD. This magnetic resonance imaging study assessed the neuroanatomical basis for these effects.

METHODS

Patients with TRD who were moderately depressed or BD in partial remission were randomized to 8 weekly EPO (40,000 IU) or saline infusions in a double-blind, parallel-group design. Patients underwent magnetic resonance imaging, memory assessment with the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and mood ratings with the Beck Depression Inventory, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, and Young Mania Rating Scale at baseline and week 14. Hippocampus segmentation and analysis of hippocampal volume, shape, and gray matter density were conducted with FMRIB Software Library tools. Memory change was analyzed with repeated-measures analysis of covariance adjusted for depression symptoms, diagnosis, age, and gender.

RESULTS

Eighty-four patients were randomized; 1 patient withdrew and data collection was incomplete for 14 patients; data were thus analyzed for 69 patients (EPO: n = 35, saline: n = 34). Compared with saline, EPO was associated with mood-independent memory improvement and reversal of brain matter loss in the left hippocampal cornu ammonis 1 to cornu ammonis 3 and subiculum. Using the entire sample, memory improvement was associated with subfield hippocampal volume increase independent of mood change.

CONCLUSIONS

EPO-associated memory improvement in TRD and BD may be mediated by reversal of brain matter loss in a subfield of the left hippocampus. EPO may provide a therapeutic option for patients with mood disorders who have impaired neuroplasticity and cognition.

Children and adolescents previously treated with glucocorticoids display lower verbal intellectual abilities

AIM

Perinatal exposure to glucocorticoids has been associated with adverse cerebral effects, but little is known about their effect on cognitive development and exposure later in childhood. This study examined intellectual abilities, memory and behavioural problems in children previously treated with glucocorticoids.

METHODS

We evaluated 38 children aged from seven to 16 years, who had been treated with glucocorticoids for rheumatic disease or nephrotic syndrome, together with 42 healthy controls matched for age, gender and parental education. The median cumulative dose of prednisolone equivalents was 158 mg/kg (range 21-723) and the mean time that had elapsed since treatment was three-and-a-half (standard deviation 2.2) years. Intellectual abilities were assessed with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children and memory performance and behavioural problems with a pattern recognition memory task and the Child Behaviour Check List.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences between the groups in pattern recognition memory, perceptual organisation index or behavioural problems, but patients had a significantly lower verbal comprehension index and this difference was present in both disease groups. There were no significant dose-response relationships regarding verbal intellectual abilities.

CONCLUSION

Children and adolescents previously treated with glucocorticoids seemed to have lower intellectual verbal abilities than healthy controls.

The Center for Integrated Molecular Brain Imaging (Cimbi) database

We here describe a multimodality neuroimaging containing data from healthy volunteers and patients, acquired within the Lundbeck Foundation Center for Integrated Molecular Brain Imaging (Cimbi) in Copenhagen, Denmark. The data is of particular relevance for neurobiological research questions related to the serotonergic transmitter system with its normative data on the serotonergic subtype receptors 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT2A, and 5-HT4 and the 5-HT transporter (5-HTT), but can easily serve other purposes. The Cimbi database and Cimbi biobank were formally established in 2008 with the purpose to store the wealth of Cimbi-acquired data in a highly structured and standardized manner in accordance with the regulations issued by the Danish Data Protection Agency as well as to provide a quality-controlled resource for future hypothesis-generating and hypothesis-driven studies. The Cimbi database currently comprises a total of 1100 PET and 1000 structural and functional MRI scans and it holds a multitude of additional data, such as genetic and biochemical data, and scores from 17 self-reported questionnaires and from 11 neuropsychological paper/computer tests. The database associated Cimbi biobank currently contains blood and in some instances saliva samples from about 500 healthy volunteers and 300 patients with e.g., major depression, dementia, substance abuse, obesity, and impulsive aggression. Data continue to be added to the Cimbi database and biobank.

Interpolation of diffusion weighted imaging datasets

Diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) is used to study white-matter fibre organisation, orientation and structural connectivity by means of fibre reconstruction algorithms and tractography. For clinical settings, limited scan time compromises the possibilities to achieve high image resolution for finer anatomical details and signal-to-noise-ratio for reliable fibre reconstruction. We assessed the potential benefits of interpolating DWI datasets to a higher image resolution before fibre reconstruction using a diffusion tensor model. Simulations of straight and curved crossing tracts smaller than or equal to the voxel size showed that conventional higher-order interpolation methods improved the geometrical representation of white-matter tracts with reduced partial-volume-effect (PVE), except at tract boundaries. Simulations and interpolation of ex-vivo monkey brain DWI datasets revealed that conventional interpolation methods fail to disentangle fine anatomical details if PVE is too pronounced in the original data. As for validation we used ex-vivo DWI datasets acquired at various image resolutions as well as Nissl-stained sections. Increasing the image resolution by a factor of eight yielded finer geometrical resolution and more anatomical details in complex regions such as tract boundaries and cortical layers, which are normally only visualized at higher image resolutions. Similar results were found with typical clinical human DWI dataset. However, a possible bias in quantitative values imposed by the interpolation method used should be considered. The results indicate that conventional interpolation methods can be successfully applied to DWI datasets for mining anatomical details that are normally seen only at higher resolutions, which will aid in tractography and microstructural mapping of tissue compartments.

Altered reward processing in the orbitofrontal cortex and hippocampus in healthy first-degree relatives of patients with depression

BACKGROUND

Healthy first-degree relatives of patients with major depression (rMD+) show brain structure and functional response anomalies and have elevated risk for developing depression, a disorder linked to abnormal serotonergic neurotransmission and reward processing.

METHOD

In a two-step functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) investigation, we first evaluated whether positive and negative monetary outcomes were differentially processed by rMD+ individuals compared to healthy first-degree relatives of control probands (rMD-). Second, in a double-blinded placebo-controlled randomized trial we investigated whether a 4-week intervention with the selective serotonergic reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) escitalopram had a normalizing effect on behavior and brain responses of the rMD+ individuals.

RESULTS

Negative outcomes increased the probability of risk-averse choices in the subsequent trial in rMD+ but not in rMD- individuals. The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) displayed a stronger neural response when subjects missed a large reward after a low-risk choice in the rMD+ group compared to the rMD- group. The enhanced orbitofrontal response to negative outcomes was reversed following escitalopram intervention compared to placebo. Conversely, for positive outcomes, the left hippocampus showed attenuated response to high wins in the rMD+ compared to the rMD- group. The SSRI intervention reinforced the hippocampal response to large wins. A subsequent structural analysis revealed that the abnormal neural responses were not accounted for by changes in gray matter density in rMD+ individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study in first-degree relatives of depressive patients showed abnormal brain responses to aversive and rewarding outcomes in regions known to be dysfunctional in depression. We further confirmed the reversal of these aberrant activations with SSRI intervention.

Monitoring mammary tumor progression and effect of tamoxifen treatment in MMTV-PymT using MRI and magnetic resonance spectroscopy with hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate

PURPOSE

To use dynamic magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) of hyperpolarized (13)C-pyruvate to follow the progress over time in vivo of breast cancer metabolism in the MMTV-PymT model, and to follow the response to the anti-estrogen drug tamoxifen.

METHODS

Tumor growth was monitored by anatomical MRI by measuring tumor volumes. Dynamic MRS of hyperpolarized (13)C was used to measure an "apparent" pyruvate-to-lactate rate constant (kp) of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in vivo. Further, ex vivo pathology and in vitro LDH initial reaction velocity were evaluated.

RESULTS

Tamoxifen significantly halted the tumor growth measured as tumor volume by MRI. In the untreated animals, kp correlated with tumor growth. The kP was somewhat but not significantly lower in the treated group. Studies in vitro confirmed the effects of tamoxifen on tumor growth, and here the LDH reaction velocity was reduced significantly in the treated group.

CONCLUSION

These hyperpolarized (13)C MRS findings indicate that tumor metabolic changes affects kP. The measured kp did not relate to treatment response to the same extent as did tumor growth, histological evaluation, and in vitro determination of LDH activity.

Serotonin 2A receptors contribute to the regulation of risk-averse decisions

Pharmacological studies point to a role of the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) in regulating the preference for risky decisions, yet the functional contribution of specific 5-HT receptors remains to be clarified. We used pharmacological fMRI to investigate the role of the 5-HT2A receptors in processing negative outcomes and regulating risk-averse behavior. During fMRI, twenty healthy volunteers performed a gambling task under two conditions: with or without blocking the 5-HT2A receptors. The volunteers repeatedly chose between small, likely rewards and large, unlikely rewards. Choices were balanced in terms of expected utility and potential loss. Acute blockade of the 5-HT2A receptors with ketanserin made participants more risk-averse. Ketanserin selectively reduced the neural response of the frontopolar cortex to negative outcomes that were caused by low-risk choices and were associated with large missed rewards. In the context of normal 5-HT2A receptor function, ventral striatum displayed a stronger response to low-risk negative outcomes in risk-taking as opposed to risk-averse individuals. This (negative) correlation between the striatal response to low-risk negative outcomes and risk-averse choice behavior was abolished by 5-HT2A receptor blockade. The results provide the first evidence for a critical role of 5-HT2A receptor function in regulating risk-averse behavior. We suggest that the 5-HT2A receptor system facilitates risk-taking behavior by modulating the outcome evaluation of "missed" reward. These results have implications for understanding the neural basis of abnormal risk-taking behavior, for instance in pathological gamblers.

Acute serotonin 2A receptor blocking alters the processing of fearful faces in the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala

BACKGROUND

The serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptor has been implicated in neural-processing of emotionally salient information. To elucidate its role in processing of fear and anger, healthy individuals were studied with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) after 5-HT2A receptor blockade, while judging the gender of neutral, fearful and angry faces.

METHODS

5-HT2A receptors were blocked with ketanserin to a variable degree across subjects by adjusting the time between ketanserin-infusion and onset of the fMRI protocol. Neocortical 5-HT2A receptor binding in terms of the binding potential (BPp ) was assessed prior to fMRI with (18)F-altanserin positron emission tomography (PET) and subsequently integrated in the fMRI data analysis. Also functional connectivity analysis was employed to evaluate the effect of ketanserin blocking on connectivity.

RESULTS

Compared to a control session, 5-HT2A receptor blockade reduced the neural response to fearful faces in the medial orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), independently of 5-HT2A receptor occupancy or neocortical 5-HT2A receptor BPp . The medial OFC also showed increased functional coupling with the left amygdala during processing of fearful faces depending on the amount of blocked 5-HT2A receptors.

CONCLUSIONS

5-HT2A receptor mediated signaling increases the sensitivity of the OFC to fearful facial expressions and regulates the strength of a negative feedback signal from the OFC to amygdala during processing of fearful faces.

Playing it safe but losing anyway--serotonergic signaling of negative outcomes in dorsomedial prefrontal cortex in the context of risk-aversion

Risk avoidance is an important determinant of human behavior. The neurotransmitter serotonin has been implicated in processing negative outcomes caused by risky decisions. However, it is unclear whether serotonin provides a neurobiological link between making a risk aversive decision and the response to a negative outcome. Using pharmacological fMRI, we manipulated the availability of serotonin in healthy volunteers while performing a gambling task. The same group of participants was studied in three fMRI sessions: (i) during intravenous administration of the SSRI citalopram to increase the serotonergic tone, (ii) after acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) to reduce central serotonin levels, or (iii) without interventions. ATD and citalopram had opposite effects on outcome related activity in dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and amygdala. Relative to the control condition, ATD increased and citalopram decreased the neural response to negative outcomes in dmPFC. Conversely, ATD decreased and citalopram increased the neural response to negative outcomes in left amygdala. Critically, these pharmacological effects were restricted to negative outcomes that were caused by low-risk decisions and led to a high missed reward. ATD and citalopram did not alter the neural response to positive outcomes in dmPFC, but relative to ATD, citalopram produced a bilateral increase in the amygdala response to large wins caused by high-risk choices. The results show a selective involvement of the serotonergic system in neocortical processing of negative outcomes resulting from risk-averse decisions, thereby linking risk aversion and processing of negative outcomes in goal-directed behaviors.

Acute pharmacologically induced shifts in serotonin availability abolish emotion-selective responses to negative face emotions in distinct brain networks

Pharmacological manipulation of serotonin availability can alter the processing of facial expressions of emotion. Using a within-subject design, we measured the effect of serotonin on the brain's response to aversive face emotions with functional MRI while 20 participants judged the gender of neutral, fearful and angry faces. In three separate and counterbalanced sessions, participants received citalopram (CIT) to raise serotonin levels, underwent acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) to lower serotonin, or were studied without pharmacological challenge (Control). An analysis designed to identify distributed brain responses identified two brain networks with modulations of activity related to face emotion and serotonin level. The first network included the left amygdala, bilateral striatum, and fusiform gyri. During the Control session this network responded only to fearful faces; increasing serotonin decreased this response to fear, whereas reducing serotonin enhanced the response of this network to angry faces. The second network involved bilateral amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, and these regions also showed increased activity to fear during the Control session. Both drug challenges enhanced the neural response of this set of regions to angry faces, relative to Control, and CIT also enhanced activity for neutral faces. The net effect of these changes in both networks was to abolish the selective response to fearful expressions. These results suggest that a normal level of serotonin is critical for maintaining a differentiated brain response to threatening face emotions. Lower serotonin leads to a broadening of a normally fear-specific response to anger, and higher levels reduce the differentiated brain response to aversive face emotions.

Serotonin 2A receptors, citalopram and tryptophan-depletion: a multimodal imaging study of their interactions during response inhibition

Poor behavioral inhibition is a common feature of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Successful inhibition of a prepotent response in 'NoGo' paradigms requires the integrity of both the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and the serotonergic system. We investigated individual differences in serotonergic regulation of response inhibition. In 24 healthy adults, we used (18)F-altanserin positron emission tomography to assess cerebral 5-HT2A receptors, which have been related to impulsivity. We then investigated the impact of two acute manipulations of brain serotonin levels on behavioral and neural correlates of inhibition using intravenous citalopram and acute tryptophan depletion during functional magnetic resonance imaging. We adapted the NoGo paradigm to isolate effects on inhibition per se as opposed to other aspects of the NoGo paradigm. Successful NoGo inhibition was associated with greater activation of the right IFG compared to control trials with alternative responses, indicating that the IFG is activated with inhibition in NoGo trials rather than other aspects of invoked cognitive control. Activation of the left IFG during NoGo trials was greater with citalopram than acute tryptophan depletion. Moreover, with the NoGo-type of response inhibition, the right IFG displayed an interaction between the type of serotonergic challenge and neocortical 5-HT2A receptor binding. Specifically, acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) produced a relatively larger NoGo response in the right IFG in subjects with low 5-HT2A BPP but reduced the NoGo response in those with high 5-HT2A BPP. These links between serotonergic function and response inhibition in healthy subjects may help to interpret serotonergic abnormalities underlying impulsivity in neuropsychiatric disorders.