[Advantages of the superior areolar approach for tuberous breast II and III correction with implants]

Tuberous breast is a mammary malformation that remains difficult to treat in most cases. It results from an abnormal development of the mammary base, mainly at the lower pole of the breast. The superficialis fascia is adherent to the dermis and deep plane. For type II and III of Grolleau's classification, we were confronted by some difficulties with inferior areolar approach as in Puckett's or Ribeiro's techniques. We had frequently an insufficient glandular volume at the inferior part of the breast and an early look of a "double bubble" deformity. We propose a technical modification to these procedures using a superior hemiareolar approach to place the implant. Associated with an incision of the deep part of the superficialis fascia, it provides a good-shaped lower pole of the breast by preserving glandular volume at this part and reduces the apparition of "double bubble". We operated on 14 types II-III tuberous breasts on nine female patients and had no significant complication. The mean follow-up is 36 months and the results were very satisfying for the patient and her surgeon.

Gait in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Kinematics, electromyographic and energy cost analysis

INTRODUCTION

Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) can affect spine mobility and gait mechanisms. Nowadays little is known about the effects of scoliosis on gait.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of untreated scoliosis on gait.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty-four females (13 healthy girls and 41 AIS with thoracolumbar/lumbar curve) were assessed by gait analysis. Xrays allowed classifying AIS patients into three groups, depending on the scoliosis severity. Gait analysis included synchronous bilateral kinematic and electromyographic (EMG) measurements, assessment of external (W(ext)), internal (W(int)), total mechanical work (W(tot)), oxygen consumption (V O(2)), energy cost (C) and muscular efficiency (W(tot)/C).

RESULTS

Shoulder, pelvis and hip motions were significantly reduced in all AIS patients. The reduced motion correlated with decreased W(tot). V O(2) and C were increased by 30 %. Muscle efficiency was decreased by 29 %. Increased C correlated with prolonged timing activity of lumbo-pelvic muscles (LPMTA).

DISCUSSION

Reduction of W(tot) can be explained by decrease of external work. Increase of V O(2) and energy cost could be due to bilateral increase of LPMTA.

CONCLUSION

Similar gait alterations were observed in all AIS patients, whatever the severity of the scoliosis. The observed alterations may be considered as the manifestation of an underlying neuromuscular disease or as a consequence of the stiffening effect of scoliosis. The observed "careful walking" strategy could also be a compensatory mechanism to minimize energy expenditure.

Gait in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: energy cost analysis

Walking is a very common activity for the human body. It is so common that the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular systems are optimized to have the minimum energetic cost at 4 km/h (spontaneous speed). A previous study showed that lumbar and thoracolumbar adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) patients exhibit a reduction of shoulder, pelvic, and hip frontal mobility during gait. A longer contraction duration of the spinal and pelvic muscles was also noted. The energetic cost (C) of walking is normally linked to the actual mechanical work muscles have to perform. This total mechanical work (W(tot)) can be divided in two parts: the work needed to move the shoulders and lower limbs relative to the center of mass of the body (COM(b)) is known as the internal work (W(int)), whereas additional work, known as external work (W(ext)), is needed to accelerate and lift up the COM(b) relative to the ground. Normally, the COM(b) goes up and down by 3 cm with every step. Pathological walking usually leads to an increase in W (tot) (often because of increased vertical displacement of the COM(b)), and consequently, it increases the energetic cost. The goal of this study is to investigate the effects of scoliosis and scoliosis severity on the mechanical work and energetic cost of walking. Fifty-four female subjects aged 12 to 17 were used in this study. Thirteen healthy girls were in the control group, 12 were in scoliosis group 1 (Cobb angle [Cb] < or = 20 degrees), 13 were in scoliosis group 2 (20 degrees < Cb < 40 degrees), and 16 were in scoliosis group 3 (Cb > or = 40 degrees). They were assessed by physical examination and gait analysis. The 41 scoliotic patients had an untreated progressive left thoracolumbar or lumbar AIS. During gait analysis, the subject was asked to walk on a treadmill at 4 km h(-1). Movements of the limbs were followed by six infrared cameras, which tracked markers fixed on the body. W(int) was calculated from the kinematics. The movements of the COM(b) were derived from the ground reaction forces, and W(ext) was calculated from the force signal. W(tot) was equal to W(int) + W(ext). Oxygen consumption VO2 was measured with a mask to calculate energetic cost (C) and muscular efficiency (W(tot)/C). Statistical comparisons between the groups were performed using an analysis of variance (ANOVA). The external work (W(ext)) and internal work (W(int)) were both reduced from 7 to 22% as a function of the severity of the scoliosis curve. Overall, the total muscular mechanical work (W(tot)) was reduced from 7% to 13% in the scoliosis patients. Within scoliosis groups, the W(ext) for the group 1 (Cb > or = 20 degrees) and 2 (20 < or = Cb < or = 40 degrees) was significantly different from group 3 (Cb > or = 40 degrees). No significant differences were observed between scoliosis groups for the W(int). The W(tot) did not showed any significant difference between scoliosis groups except between group 1 and 3. The energy cost and VO2 were increased by around 30%. As a result Muscle efficiency was significantly decreased by 23% to 32%, but no significant differences related to the severity of the scoliosis were noted. This study shows that scoliosis patients have inefficient muscles during walking. Muscle efficiency was so severely decreased that it could be used as a diagnostic tool, since every scoliosis patient had an average muscle efficiency below 27%, whereas every control had an average muscle efficiency above 27%. The reduction of mechanical work found in scoliotic patients has never been observed in any pathological gait, but it is interpreted as a long term adaptation to economize energy and face poor muscle efficiency. With a relatively stiff gait, scoliosis patients also limit vertical movement of the COM(b) (smoothing the gait) and consequently, reduce W(ext) and W(int). Inefficiency of scoliosis muscles was obvious even in mild scoliosis (group 1, Cb < 20 degrees) and could be related to the prolonged muscle contraction time observed in a previous study (muscle co-contraction).