Shoulder arthrodesis in brachial plexus palsy

Long considered as the ultimate surgery for limb salvage in case of brachial plexus palsy, shoulder fusion has seen its indications reduced with the development of more numerous and multiple tendon transfers. This option remains valid and should always be suggested first because of its reliable effects on pain and function. However, it is a demanding surgery, the position of the fusion remains difficult to determine and the complication rate is not negligible.

Innervation of flexor hallucis longus muscle: an anatomical study for selective neurotomy

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to describe the innervation of flexor hallucis longus (FHL) and obtain its surgical coordinates to facilitate selective neurotomy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifteen embalmed lower limbs of adults were studied. Anatomical dissections to isolate the innervating branches of FHL were performed. Distance between the supplying nerve of FHL, including both its origin and termination, and the medial malleolus were obtained, providing anatomical coordinates beneficial for surgery.

RESULTS

In all cases, FHL was innervated by only one branch, which originated from the tibial nerve. Mean distance between the medial malleolus and the nervous branch origin was 21.39 ± 3.05 cm. Mean distance between the medial malleolus and the nervous branch termination was 12.7 ± 1.59 cm. Length of the nervous branch innervating FHL was proportional to the length of the leg, measuring 8.69 ± 2.45 cm. All nerves were located 15-17.4 cm above the medial malleolus.

CONCLUSIONS

This anatomical study traced valuable surgical coordinates useful for performing selective peripheral neurotomy on the nerve branch innervating the FHL.

Popeye sign: Tenodesis vs. self-locking "T" tenotomy of the long head of the biceps

INTRODUCTION

Treatment of long head of the biceps lesions is controversial. A new technique of self-locking "T" tenotomy was developed in our department in 2013.

HYPOTHESIS

The main objective of the present study was to assess onset of Popeye sign after "T" tenotomy, with comparison to long head of the biceps tenodesis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A continuous retrospective study included 180 patients with long head of the biceps lesion, either isolated or associated with rotator cuff tear.

RESULTS

130 underwent "T" tenotomy (group A), and 50 tenodesis (group B). Mean age was 57.9 years (range, 23-88 years) in group A and 50.8 years (range, 20-66 years) in group B. At last follow-up, 27.7% of patients in group A and 24% in group B showed Popeye sign (P=0.616), after equivalence test and adjustment on age and occupational activity. Bicipital groove pain was more frequent in the tenodesis group (44% versus 25.4%; P=0.025).

DISCUSSION

Self-locking "T" tenotomy did not significantly differ from tenodesis in onset of Popeye sign or clinical results, and showed better postoperative course.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV, retrospective study.

Outcomes of capsulolabral reconstruction for posterior shoulder instability

BACKGROUND

Surgical treatment of isolated posterior shoulder instability-a rare and often misdiagnosed condition-is controversial because of poor outcomes. Failure of physical therapy in symptomatic young athletes requires capsulolabral reconstruction or bone block procedures. The goal of this study was to report the outcomes of patients who have undergone surgical capsulolabral reconstruction and to look for risk factors that contribute to failure of this procedure.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

We analyzed the outcomes of 101 patients who underwent capsulolabral reconstruction: 83 included retrospectively, 18 included prospectively. The procedures were performed alone or in combination with capsular shift, labral repair, closure of the rotator interval and notch remplissage. The primary endpoint was failure of the procedure, defined as recurrence of the instability and/or pain. We also determined the outcomes based on specific (Walch-Duplay, modified Rowe) and non-specific (Constant, resumption of activities) scores of shoulder instability.

RESULTS

The results were satisfactory despite a high failure rate: 35% in the retrospective cohort with 4.8±2.6 years' follow-up and 22% in the prospective cohort with 1.1±0.3 years' follow-up. The various outcome scores improved significantly. Ninety-two percent of patients returned to work and 80% of athletes returned to their pre-injury level of sports. Eighty-five percent of patients were satisfied or very satisfied after the surgery. No risk factors for failure were identified; however, failures were more common in older patients, those who underwent an isolated procedure and those who had unclassified clinical forms.

CONCLUSION

Treatment of posterior shoulder instability by capsulolabral reconstruction leads to good clinical outcomes; however, the recurrence rate is high.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4 - retrospective study.

Painful posterior shoulder instability: Anticipating and preventing failure. A study in 25 patients

BACKGROUND

Painful posterior shoulder instability (PPSI) is the least common of the three clinical patterns of posterior shoulder instability. PPSI is defined as pain combined with anatomical evidence of posterior instability but no instability events.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

We studied a multicentre cohort of 25 patients with PPSI; 23 were identified retrospectively and had a follow-up of at least 2 years and 2 patients were included prospectively. Most patients engaged in sports.

RESULTS

All 25 patients underwent surgery, which usually consisted in arthroscopic capsulo-labral reconstruction. The outcome was excellent in 43% of patients; another 43% had improvements but reported persistent pain. The pain remained unchanged or worsened in the remaining 14% of patients. Causes of failure consisted of a missed diagnosis of shoulder osteoarthritis with posterior subluxation, technical errors, and postoperative complications. The main cause of incomplete improvement with persistent pain was presence of cartilage damage.

CONCLUSION

Outcomes were excellent in patients who were free of cartilage damage, bony abnormalities associated with posterior instability (reverse Hill-Sachs lesion, erosion or fracture of the posterior glenoid), technical errors, and postoperative complications.

Clinical outcomes of posterior bone block procedures for posterior shoulder instability: Multicenter retrospective study of 66 cases

BACKGROUND

The posterior bone block procedure is a well-known treatment option for posterior shoulder instability. The goal of this retrospective multicenter study was to evaluate the clinical and radiological outcomes of this procedure.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study cohort consisted of 66 patients (55 men, 11 women) with an average age of 27.8 years who were evaluated clinically and radiologically using a standardized questionnaire after posterior bone block surgery.

RESULTS

The Constant score significantly improved postoperatively (P<0.0001). The postoperative Walch-Duplay score was 81.5. The Rowe score was 86.5 points. The pain level (VAS) was significantly reduced after this procedure (P<0.0001). Eighty-five percent of patients were satisfied or very satisfied with the outcome.

CONCLUSION

This multicenter study of 66 patients shows that the posterior bone block procedure is an effective technique with good subjective and objective outcomes; however, the possibility of complications cannot be ignored.

CLINICAL STUDY

Level of evidence IV.

Cadaver study of anatomic landmark identification for placing ankle arthroscopy portals

BACKGROUND

Arthroscopy-assisted surgery is now widely used at the ankle for osteochondral lesions of the talus, anterior and posterior impingement syndromes, talocrural or subtalar fusion, foreign body removal, and ankle instability. Injuries to the vessels and nerves may occur during these procedures.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether ultrasound topographic identification of vulnerable structures decreased the risk of iatrogenic injuries to vessels, nerves, and tendons and influenced the distance separating vulnerable structures from the arthroscope introduced through four different portals.

HYPOTHESIS

Ultrasonography to identify vulnerable structures before or during arthroscopic surgery on the ankle may be useful.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Twenty fresh cadaver ankles from body donations to the anatomy institute in Strasbourg, France, were divided into two equal groups. Preoperative ultrasonography to mark the trajectories of vessels, nerves, and tendons was performed in one group but not in the other. The portals were created using a 4-mm trocar. Each portal was then dissected. The primary evaluation criterion was the presence or absence of injuries to vessels, nerves, and tendons. The secondary evaluation criterion was the distance between these structures and the arthroscope.

RESULTS

No tendon injuries occurred with ultrasonography. Without ultrasonography, there were two full-thickness tendon lesions, one to the extensor hallucis longus and the other to the Achilles tendon. Furthermore, with the anterolateral, anteromedial, and posteromedial portals, the distance separating the vessels and nerves from the arthroscope was greater with than without ultrasonography (P=0.041, P=0.005, and P=0.002), respectively; no significant difference was found with the anterior portal.

DISCUSSION

Preoperative ultrasound topographic identification decreases the risk of iatrogenic injury to the vessels, nerves, and tendons during ankle arthroscopy and places these structures at a safer distance from the arthroscope. Our hypothesis was confirmed.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV, cadaver study.

Experimental validation of the GNRB® for measuring anterior tibial translation

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this study was to validate the technique used to measure anterior tibial translation in cadaver knees using the GNRB^® device by comparing it with the gold standard, the OrthoPilot^® navigation system.

HYPOTHESIS

Simultaneous measurement of anterior tibial translation by the GNRB^® and the OrthoPilot^® in the chosen experimental conditions will result in significant differences between devices.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Five fresh frozen cadavers were used. The knee was placed in 20° flexion. Four calibrated posterior-anterior forces (134N to 250N) were applied. For each applied force, the anterior tibial translation was measured simultaneously by both devices. Two conditions were analyzed: anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) intact and ACL transected. The primary criterion was anterior tibial translation at 250N. The measurements were compared using a paired Student's t-test and the correlation coefficient was calculated. Agreement between the two methods was determined using Bland-Altman plots. Consistency of the measurements was determined by calculating the intraclass correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

For all applied forces and ligament conditions, the mean difference between the GNRB^® and the navigation system was 0.1±1.7mm (n.s). Out of the 80 measurements taken, the difference between devices was less than ±2mm in 66 cases (82%). There was a strong correlation, good agreement and high consistency between the two measurement methods.

DISCUSSION

The differences between the measurements taken by the GNRB^® and the navigation system were small and likely have no clinical impact. We recommend using the GNRB^® to evaluate anterior knee laxity.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

II controlled laboratory study.

Is anterior glenoid bone block position reliably assessed by standard radiography? A cadaver study

BACKGROUND

Standard radiography with an antero-posterior view and Bernageau's glenoid profile view is the method most widely reported in the literature to assess coracoid bone block position and fusion.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this cadaver study was to determine whether the antero-posterior and Bernageau's radiographs provide a reliable and reproducible evaluation of the position of a coracoid bone block and its fixation screws.

METHOD

An isolated scapula showing no evidence of osteoarthritis or other abnormalities was used. The coracoid process was transferred to the anterior glenoid rim. Fixation was with two slightly diverging malleolar screws, chosen of different sizes for ease of identification. Computed tomography (CT) was performed as the reference imaging technique. The standard radiographs were then obtained, using fluoroscopy to accurately position the scapula for the antero-posterior and Bernageau's views. This position was defined as 0°, and radiographs were taken at angles of 5°, 10°, and 15° in all three planes. All radiographs were taken during a single session to ensure that the distance separating the tube from the scapula remained unchanged. The images were exported to OsiriX for analysis. We measured the angles formed by the screws and the glenoid surface, as well as bone block position and overhang. Finally, we used 1-mm thick disks to evaluate bone-to-bone contact.

RESULTS

No correlations were found between values by CT and by standard radiography (both views) for the screw angles or overhang. A space≤1mm between the neck of the scapula and the bone block was not visible on the standard radiographs in any of the positions.

CONCLUSION

Standard radiography does not provide an accurate analysis of bone block position or bone-to-bone contact. CT is needed to assess bone block and screw position and bone-to-bone contact.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Preliminary clinical outcomes of Latarjet-Patte coracoid transfer by arthroscopy vs. open surgery: Prospective multicentre study of 390 cases

BACKGROUND

The Latarjet-Patte procedure consisting in transfer and screw fixation of the coracoid process to the anterior glenoid is a treatment of reference for anterior shoulder instability. Over time, surgical innovations translated into a number of improvements and, in late 2003, an arthroscopically assisted variant of the procedure was described.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate and compare clinical outcomes of the modified Latarjet-Patte procedure performed by open surgery, arthroscopy with screw fixation, or arthroscopy with endobutton fixation.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

A total of 390 patients who underwent surgery to treat anterior shoulder instability between March 2013 and June 2014 were included and divided into three groups depending on whether they were managed using open surgery with screw fixation, arthroscopy with screw fixation, or arthroscopy with endobutton fixation. Clinical findings were recorded pre-operatively then 6 months post-operatively and at last follow-up (mean, 27.7 months). Range of motion and apprehension test (arm in external rotation at 0°, 90°, and 140° of abduction) were assessed and the Walch-Duplay and modified Rowe scores were determined.

RESULTS

Motion range restriction was minimal with all three techniques, and motion range continued to improve throughout follow-up. Apprehension in external rotation was noted at 90° of abduction in 11% of cases and at 140° of abduction in 4% of cases. The mean total Walch-Duplay score improved from 46 pre-operatively to 90.6 and the mean total modified Rowe score from 46 pre-operatively to 91.1. By statistical analysis, external rotation at 90° of abduction and internal rotation at 0° of abduction were better after open surgery, but the differences were of limited clinical significance. Recurrence was noted in 3.3% of cases, nerve injury in 0.8%, and infection in 1.5%.

CONCLUSION

In this study, the three techniques produced similar clinical outcomes, with a stable shoulder and no joint stiffness.

Functional outcomes after open versus arthroscopic Latarjet procedure: A prospective comparative study

INTRODUCTION

The Latarjet procedure provides effective stabilization of chronically unstable shoulders. Since this procedure is mainly performed in a young athletic population, the functional impact is significant. Published data does not shed light on the time needed to recover work-related or sports-related function. Performing this procedure arthroscopically may improve functional recovery. This led us to carry out a prospective, multicenter study to compare the functional recovery after arthroscopic versus open Latarjet procedure.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Between June and November 2014, 184 patients were included in a prospective multicenter study: 85 in the open group and 99 in the arthroscopy group. The patients were evaluated preoperatively with the WOSI score. The early postoperative pain was evaluated on D3, D7 and D30. The WOSI score was determined postoperatively at 1, 3, 6 and 12 months of follow-up.

RESULTS

The functional scores of the shoulder in both cohorts were identical overall preoperatively. In the immediate postoperative period, the arthroscopy group had statistically lower pain levels on D3 and D7. The postoperative WOSI was improved in both groups at 3 months, then continued to improve until it reached a plateau at 1 year. The WOSI score was better in the arthroscopy group at 3 months, but better in the open group at 6 months.

CONCLUSION

This study found that a Latarjet procedure performed arthroscopically generates less immediately postoperative pain than when it is performed as an open procedure. The Latarjet procedure (whether open or arthroscopic) improves shoulder function, with normal function returning after 1 year.

Critical shoulder angle: Measurement reproducibility and correlation with rotator cuff tendon tears

BACKGROUND

Associations have been reported linking rotator cuff tears (RCTs) to both greater lateral extension of the acromion and greater inclination of the glenoid cavity. These two factors combined can be assessed using a recently introduced parameter, the critical shoulder angle (CSA). The primary objective of this study was to confirm the association linking a high CSA value to RCTs, and the secondary objective was to assess the reproducibility of CSA measurement using a goniometer.

HYPOTHESIS

The null hypothesis was that the CSA value in a group of patients with RCTs was not significantly different from that in patients with anterior shoulder instability and a Bankart lesion, taken as the general population for this study.

METHODS

After a power estimation, we retrospectively included 28 patients with a mean age of 55.5 years who had surgery for RCTs and 27 patients with a mean age of 27.2 years who underwent anterior labral repair. Two surgeons used a goniometer to measure the CSA in each patient. Reproducibility was assessed based on Bland-Altman plots and Pearson's correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

The mean CSA was significantly higher (P=0.02) in the RCT group (36.4°±4.4°; range: 30°-46°) than in the labral-repair group (33.3°±3.8°; range: 25°-41°). Intra-observer reproducibility was 96.7% and inter-observer reproducibility was 95.5%.

CONCLUSION

Our results support previously published evidence that the CSA is significantly greater in patients with RCTs. Thus, an anatomical difference seems to exist between patients with RCTs and the general population. The CSA measured on a standard radiograph using a goniometer provides a reproducible assessment of this anatomical difference.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV, case-control epidemiological study with a power estimation.

Revisions of total shoulder arthroplasty: Clinical results and complications of various modalities

INTRODUCTION

The number of primary total shoulder arthroplasties has increased exponentially in recent years, with a corresponding increase in the number of revision procedures.

OBJECTIVE

To assess clinical results and complications in a series of shoulder implant replacement, of whatever etiology.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-seven patients, with a mean age of 68.3±11.8 years at time of implant replacement, were included in a retrospective study. Mean interval between primary arthroplasty and revision was 78.4±59.7 months (range, 1-200 months). The main assessment criterion was changed in Constant score between preoperative value and follow-up. Secondary criteria were: onset of intra- and postoperative complications, and reoperation related to a complication.

RESULTS

Mean follow-up was 41.5±32.0 months (range, 12-105 months). Absolute Constant score increased by a mean 17.5±15.1 points (P<0.001) and weighted Constant score by 26.3±23.6 points (P<0.001). Intraoperative complications occurred in 24.3% of patients (9/37) and postoperative complications in 29.7% (11/37). Among the patients, 21.6% (8/37) required reoperation for postoperative complications. Overall, 54% of patients (20/37) suffered from intra- or postoperative complications.

CONCLUSION

Shoulder implant replacement improved function in the present series, but with a high rate of complications and reoperations.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV, retrospective case-control study without control group.

Anatomical and biomechanical evaluation of an intramedullary nail for fractures of proximal humerus fractures based on tuberosity fixation

BACKGROUND

For unstable proximal humerus fractures, both plates and nails may be recommended. We introduce an anterograde nail designed for the treatment of 3- and 4-parts proximal humerus fractures. The aim of this study is to compare the biomechanics of this nail versus a plate and then to analyze the relationships of the screws with the axillary nerve. Our working hypotheses are as follows: (1) this nail is biomechanically equal or better to the reference plate and (2) it does not endanger the axillary nerve.

METHODS

Biomechanical study: using 40 sawbones, a reproducible 4-part fracture was created and fixed first with an angle-stable plate for proximal humeral fracture, then fixed with the nail using 2 posterior screws. All specimens were mounted in a custom testing apparatus. Two trails were performed needing each time 5 "normal" and 5 "osteoporotic" bones.

ANATOMICAL STUDY

On 20 unpaired shoulders, a nail was inserted with all screws through a superior approach (deltoid split approach). Dissection of all shoulders was done to identify the axillary nerve. The distance between each screw and the axillary nerve or its branches was measured.

FINDINGS

The proximal humerus nail demonstrated higher values than locking plate for both stiffness and load to failure. The failure mode differs in function of the type of osteosynthesis. The lowest distance between a screw and the axillary nerve was 20.13 mm.

INTERPRETATIONS

We introduce a biomechanically efficient nail without increased neurological risks to improve the pullout strength of the screws to provide more secure fixation of proximal humeral fractures.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Basic Science Study, Anatomic Cadaver Study.

Complication rates and types of failure after arthroscopic acute acromioclavicular dislocation fixation. Prospective multicenter study of 116 cases

AIMS

To report and analyze both the surgical and radiographic complications associated with anatomic coracoclavicular (CC) ligament procedures and to evaluate the effect of these complications on patient outcomes.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From July 2012 to July 2013, 116 primary anatomic CC ligament procedures (all arthroscopic endobutton fixations) were performed in 14 different centers. Demographic, surgical, subjective, and radiographic data were prospectively analyzed in 14 centers with a minimum follow-up of 12 months.

RESULTS

This series included 96 men and 20 women, mean age 37 years old, with a mean delay to surgery of 10 days. No intraoperative complications were reported. There were 11 complications due to hardware failure resulting in a loss of reduction, 1 coracoid fracture, 7 cases of adhesive capsulitis, 2 local infections, 5 cases of hardware pain. There were significant differences in outcomes between patients who did and did not develop complications: mean CS=71 vs. 93, (P<0.0001). All the parameters of the CS were statistically affected (P<0.0001). Forty-eight patients had persistent dislocation>150% on an AP X-ray which affected the pain and activity CS (P=0.023 and P=0.044). No preoperative predictive factors were identified. These patients could not return to the same level of sports activities due to persistent pain.

DISCUSSION

Anatomic procedures to treat AC joint dislocation using CC ligament reconstruction resulted in an overall complication rate of 22.4% and influenced the return to sports. Good to excellent outcomes were reported in patients without complications.

CLINICAL SERIES

Level of evidence 4.

Prognostic factors to succeed in surgical treatment of chronic acromioclavicular dislocations

INTRODUCTION

Treatment of chronic acromioclavicular joint dislocation (ACJD) remains a poorly known and controversial subject. Given the many surgical options, it is not always easy to determine which steps are indispensable.

METHODS

This article reports a multicenter prospective study. The clinical and radiological follow-up involved a comparative analysis of the preoperative and postoperative data at 1 year, including pain (visual analogue scale), subjective functional incapacity (QuickDASH), and the objective Constant score, as well as a comparative analysis of vertical and horizontal movements measured on simple x-rays.

RESULTS

Based on a series of 140 operated ACJDs, we included 24 chronic ACJDs. The mean time to surgery was 46 weeks (range, 1 month to 4 years). The patients' mean age was 41 years, with a majority of males (75%), 72% of whom participated in recreational sports. Professionally, 40% of the subjects had jobs involving manual labor. We noted 40% grade III, 24% grade IV, and 36% grade V injury according to the Rockwood classification. In 92% of cases, coracoclavicular stabilization was provided by a double button implant, reinforced with a biological graft in 88% of the cases. In 29%, millimeters to centimeters of the distal clavicle were resected and acromioclavicular stabilization was associated in 54%. We observed complications in 33% of the cases. At 1 year postoperative, 21 patients underwent clinical and radiological follow-up (87.5%). Only 35% of the patients were satisfied or very satisfied, whereas 100% of them would recommend the operation. Full-time work was resumed in 91% of the cases and all sports could be resumed in 86%. The pre- and postoperative values at 1 year changed as follows: the mean Constant score improved from 61 to 87 (p=0.00002); the subjective QuickDASH score decreased from 41 to 9 (p=0.00002); and radiologically significant reduction of the initial displacement was observed in the vertical plane (p<10(-3)) and the horizontal plane (p=0.022).

CONCLUSION

In this study, the favorable prognostic factors found were: time to surgery less than 3 months (p=0.02), associated acromioclavicular stabilization, and postoperative immobilization with a sling extended to 6 weeks. However, resection of the distal clavicle did not influence the final result.

LEVEL OF PROOF

Level II prospective non-randomized comparative study.

Is coracoclavicular stabilisation alone sufficient for the endoscopic treatment of severe acromioclavicular joint dislocation (Rockwood types III, IV, and V)?

BACKGROUND

The primary objective was to evaluate correlations linking anatomical to functional outcomes after endoscopically assisted repair of acute acromioclavicular joint dislocation (ACJD).

HYPOTHESIS

Combined acromioclavicular and coracoclavicular stabilisation improves radiological outcomes compared to coracoclavicular stabilisation alone.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A prospective multicentre study was performed. Clinical outcome measures were pain intensity on a visual analogue scale (VAS), subjective functional impairment (QuickDASH score), and Constant's score. Anatomical outcomes were assessed on standard radiographs (anteroposterior view of the acromioclavicular girdle and bilateral axillary views) obtained preoperatively and postoperatively and on postoperative dynamic radiographs taken as described by Tauber et al.

RESULTS

Of 116 patients with acute ACJD included in the study, 48% had type III, 30% type IV, and 22% type V ACJD according to the Rockwood classification. Coracoclavicular stabilisation was achieved using a double endobutton in 93% of patients, and concomitant acromioclavicular stabilisation was performed in 50% of patients. The objective functional outcome was good, with an unweighted Constant's score ≥ 85/100 and a subjective QuickDASH functional disability score ≤ 10 in 75% of patients. The radiographic analysis showed significant improvements from the preoperative to the 1-year postoperative values in the vertical plane (decrease in the coracoclavicular ratio from 214 to 128%, p=10(-6)) and in the horizontal plane (decrease in posterior displacement from 4 to 0mm, p=5×10(-5)). The anatomical outcome correlated significantly with the functional outcome (absolute R value=0.19 and p=0.045). We found no statistically significant differences across the various types of constructs used. Intra-operative control of the acromioclavicular joint did not improve the result. Implantation of a biological graft significantly improved both the anatomical outcome in the vertical plane (p=0.04) and acromioclavicular stabilisation in the horizontal plane (p=0.02). The coracoclavicular ratio on the anteroposterior radiograph was adversely affected by a longer time from injury to surgery (p=0.02) and by a higher body mass index (BMI) (p=0.006). High BMI also had a negative effect on the difference in the distance separating the anterior edge of the acromion from the anterior edge of the clavicle between the injured and uninjured sides, as assessed on the axillary views (p=0.009).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that acute ACJD requires stabilisation in both planes, i.e., at the coracoclavicular junction and at the acromioclavicular joint. Coracoclavicular stabilisation alone is not sufficient, regardless of the type of implant used. Implantation of a biological graft should be considered when the time from injury to surgery is longer than 10days. The weight of the upper limb should be taken into account, with 6weeks of immobilisation to unload the construct in patients who have high BMI values.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

II, prospective non-randomised comparative study.

Arthroscopic elbow joint release with radial head resection arthroplasty: 12 cases

BACKGROUND

Elbow arthritis typically affects manual labourers aged 40 to 50 years and usually starts in the lateral compartment. The objective of this study was to evaluate the medium-term clinical, functional, and radiological outcomes in 12 patients after arthroscopic elbow joint release and radial head resection arthroplasty.

HYPOTHESIS

Our main hypothesis was that pre-operative damage to the radio-capitellar joint was associated with poorer clinical outcomes after elbow joint release.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Consecutive patients treated by a single surgeon at a single centre between July 2006 and May 2014 were studied retrospectively. The 12 patients - 10 males and 2 females with a mean age of 54.5±9.3 years (33-69 years) - had osteoarthritis confined to the radio-capitellar compartment with elbow stiffness and pain and underwent arthroscopic elbow joint release with radial head resection arthroplasty. Among them, 9 had a history of trauma or micro-trauma and 3 had rheumatoid arthritis. The Broberg and Morrey osteoarthritis grade on the pre-operative radiographs was 1 in 4 patients, 2 in 6 patients, and 3 in 2 patients.

RESULTS

Mean follow-up was 38.1±33.7 months (5-97). One patient required total elbow arthroplasty. Mean arc of motion was 79.6°±20.5° (30-110) pre-operatively, 123.6±18° (90-140) immediately after surgery, and 109°±11.7° (90-120) at last follow-up. At last follow-up, mean values were 81.4±12.5 (65-100) for the Mayo Elbow Score, 11.1±11.1 (2.3-31.8) for the Quick DASH score, and 1.1±1.6 (0-4) for the visual analogue scale pain score. The radiological assessment at last follow-up showed no evidence of osteoarthritis progression.

CONCLUSION

In our case-series, arthroscopic elbow joint release with radial head resection arthroplasty produced good outcomes with a motion arc greater than 100° and little or no pain after a mean follow-up of 3.1 years.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV, retrospective study.

Pullout characteristics of percutaneous pedicle screws with different cement augmentation methods in elderly spines: An in vitro biomechanical study

BACKGROUND

Vertebroplasty prefilling or fenestrated pedicle screw augmentation can be used to enhance pullout resistance in elderly patients. It is not clear which method offers the most reliable fixation strength if axial pullout and a bending moment is applied. The purpose of this study is to validate a new in vitro model aimed to reproduce a cut out mechanism of lumbar pedicle screws, to compare fixation strength in elderly spines with different cement augmentation techniques and to analyze factors that might influence the failure pattern.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six human specimens (82-100 years) were instrumented percutaneously at L2, L3 and L4 by non-augmented screws, vertebroplasty augmentation and fenestrated screws. Cement distribution (2 ml PMMA) was analyzed on CT. Vertebral endplates and the rod were oriented at 45° to the horizontal plane. The vertebral body was held by resin in a cylinder, linked to an unconstrained pivot, on which traction (10 N/s) was applied until rupture. Load-displacement curves were compared to simultaneous video recordings.

RESULTS

Median pullout forces were 488.5 N (195-500) for non-augmented screws, 643.5 N (270-1050) for vertebroplasty augmentation and 943.5 N (750-1084) for fenestrated screws. Cement augmentation through fenestrated screws led to significantly higher rupture forces compared to non-augmented screws (P=0.0039). The pullout force after vertebroplasty was variable and linked to cement distribution. A cement bolus around the distal screw tip led to pullout forces similar to non-augmented screws. A proximal cement bolus, as it was observed in fenestrated screws, led to higher pullout resistance. This cement distribution led to vertebral body fractures prior to screw pullout.

CONCLUSION

The experimental setup tended to reproduce a pullout mechanism observed on radiographs, combining axial pullout and a bending moment. Cement augmentation with fenestrated screws increased pullout resistance significantly, whereas the fixation strength with the vertebroplasty prefilling method was linked to the cement distribution.

Glenoid labrum pathology

The glenoid labrum is the fibrocartilage of the shoulder joint, anchoring the joint capsule and shoulder ligaments. Morphology varies regionally, especially in the superior and anterior region; these variants can sometimes be confused with pathological aspects. The labrum is often involved in shoulder pathology, by single trauma or, more often, repeated microtrauma. It seems logical to classify and to describe tears according to two criteria: the sector involved, and associated pain or instability. In the superior labrum, SLAP lesions are the most frequent. These combine labral lesion and lesion of the proximal insertion of the long head of the biceps brachii tendon. The most frequent form is SLAP II. They may be associated with instability or not. In the antero-inferior and postero-inferior labrum, lesions are mainly due to instability, particularly Bankart lesions (capsulolabral avulsion) anteriorly and Kim's lesion posteriorly. Circumferential labral lesions may be found in unstable shoulder. Finally, postero-superior lesions involve Walch's internal impingement: repeated contact between the deep surface of the cuff and the labrum, which takes on a degenerative aspect, with a kissing lesion of the cuff. There is no general rule for management: some labral lesions are resected and others fixed. The cause (which is usually shoulder instability), however, needs to be assessed and treated.

Peri-articular suprascapular neuropathy

Suprascapular nerve entrapment was first described in 1959 by Kopell and Thompson. Although rare, this condition is among the causes of poorly explained shoulder pain in patients with manifestations suggesting a rotator-cuff tear but normal tendons by imaging studies. Suprascapular nerve entrapment may cause 2% of all cases of chronic shoulder pain. Among the many reported causes of suprascapular nerve entrapment, the most common are para-labral cysts, usually in the spinoglenoid notch, and microtrauma in elite athletes. The potential relevance of concomitant rotator-cuff tears remains debated. Less common causes include tumours, scapular fractures, and direct trauma involving traction. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial to avoid the development of irreversible muscle wasting. Endoscopic surgery to treat the various causes of suprascapular nerve compression has superseded open nerve release.

Distal humerus fractures in patients over 65: complications

INTRODUCTION

Fractures of the distal humerus in patients over the age of 65 remain a therapeutic challenge. Treatment options include conservative treatment, internal fixation or total elbow arthroplasty. The complications of these different treatment options were evaluated in a multicentre study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Four hundred and ninety-seven medical records were evaluated. A retrospective study was performed in 410 cases: 34 received conservative treatment, 289 internal fixation and 87 underwent total elbow arthroplasty. A prospective study was performed in 87 cases: 22 received conservative treatment, 53 internal fixation, and 12 underwent total elbow arthroplasty. Patients were evaluated after at least 6 months follow-up.

RESULTS

The rate of complications was 30% in the retrospective study and 29% in the prospective study. The rate of complications in the conservative treatment group was 60%, and the main complication was essentially malunion. The rate of complications was 44% in the internal fixation group and included neuropathies, mechanical failure or wound dehiscence. Although complications only developed in 23% of total elbow arthroplasties, they were often more severe than those following other treatments.

DISCUSSION

Complications develop in one out of three patients over 65 with distal humerus fractures. Three main types of complications were identified. Neuropathies especially of the ulnar nerve, especially during arthroplasty, must always be identified, the nerve requiring isolation and transposition. Bone complications, due principally to mechanical failure, were found following internal fixation. Despite technical progress, care must be taken not to favor excessive utilization of this treatment option in complex fractures on fragile bone. Although there were relatively fewer complications with total elbow arthroplasty they were more difficult to treat. Ossifications were frequent whatever the surgical option and can jeopardize the functional outcome.

Outcomes of distal humerus fractures in patients above 65 years of age treated by plate fixation

INTRODUCTION

Distal humerus fractures in elderly patients are often complex fractures that are difficult to treat. The goal of this study was to report on the results of a multicentre series of internal fixation of AO type A, B and C distal humerus fractures in elderly patients and to identify the pros and cons of various fixation constructs.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Two studies were performed. One was a prospective multicentre study with 53 patients and the other was a retrospective multicentre study with 289 patients, all above 65 years of age and with a recent distal humerus fracture. Patients were evaluated based on clinical criteria (history, health condition, joint range of motion, Mayo Elbow Performance Score) and radiological criteria (fracture type, union of fracture, presence of malunion, hardware condition).

RESULTS

Based on the MEPS, the clinical and functional results were relatively satisfactory: average of 92 points for type A, 82 points for type B and 88 points for type C. In both series, type B fractures were the most difficult to treat and had less good clinical, functional and radiological outcomes. Most of the complications occurred with type C fractures; these consisted mainly of nerve injuries and fixation failure/non-union.

DISCUSSION

Although these fractures are difficult to treat and have an appreciable number of complications, the functional recovery was fairly satisfactory. One of the most challenging aspects of surgical treatment is the existence of osteoporosis in these patients. This must be carefully analysed to determine if an indication exists for total elbow arthroplasty.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

Long thoracic nerve release for scapular winging: clinical study of a continuous series of eight patients

Scapular winging secondary to serratus anterior muscle palsy is a rare pathology. It is usually due to a lesion in the thoracic part of the long thoracic nerve following violent upper-limb stretching with compression on the nerve by the anterior branch of thoracodorsal artery at the "crow's foot landmark" where the artery crosses in front of the nerve. Scapular winging causes upper-limb pain, fatigability or impotence. Diagnosis is clinical and management initially conservative. When functional treatment by physiotherapy fails to bring recovery within 6 months and electromyography (EMG) shows increased distal latencies, neurolysis may be suggested. Muscle transfer and scapula-thoracic arthrodesis are considered as palliative treatments. We report a single-surgeon experience of nine open neurolyses of the thoracic part of the long thoracic nerve in eight patients. At 6 months' follow-up, no patients showed continuing signs of winged scapula. Control EMG showed significant reduction in distal latency; Constant scores showed improvement, and VAS-assessed pain was considerably reduced. Neurolysis would thus seem to be the first-line surgical attitude of choice in case of compression confirmed on EMG. The present results would need to be confirmed in larger studies with longer follow-up, but this is made difficult by the rarity of this pathology.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III.

Complex fractures of the distal humerus in the elderly: is primary total elbow arthroplasty a valid treatment alternative? A series of 20 cases

INTRODUCTION

Distal humerus fractures are fairly rare. But as our population ages, these fractures become more complex and the choice of treatment more delicate. Poor bone quality results in many technical problems and the fixation hardware stability remains at risk. The goal of this study was to evaluate the functional recovery and morbidity of complex distal humerus fractures in elderly patients when treated with elbow prosthesis.

HYPOTHESIS

Good functional recovery can be achieved with a total joint replacement.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This series consisted of 20 patients (18 women and two men) having an average age of 80years (range 65-93, median 80). Based on the AO classification, there were two Type A2 fractures, two Type B fractures, 15 Type C fractures and one fracture that could not be classified because of previous rheumatoid disease history at this elbow. Two fractures were open. In two cases, the olecranon was also fractured. Treatment consisted of the implantation of a Coonrad-Morrey, hinge-type total elbow prosthesis (Zimmer(®), Warsaw, IN, USA). The Mayo Clinic surgical approach was used 17 times and the transolecranon approach was used three times. Primary arthroplasty was performed in 19 cases and the surgery was performed after six weeks of conservative treatment (diagnostic delay) in one case. Unrestricted motion was allowed after surgery, but a maximum of 0.5kg could be carried during the first 3months; this was subsequently increased to 2.5kg.

RESULTS

Fifteen of the 20 patients were available for reevaluation with an average follow-up of 3.6years (range 1.7-5.5, median 3.4). Four patients had died and one was lost to follow-up. The average range of motion was 97° (range 60-130°), comprising an average flexion of 130° (range 110-140°) and average loss of extension of 33° (range 0-80°). Pronation and supination were normal. The average Mayo Elbow Performance Score (MEPS) was 83 (range 60-100, median 80). X-rays revealed seven cases of radiolucent lines, with two being progressive. There was no visible wear of the polyethylene bushings at the hinge. Six patients had moderate periarticular heterotopic ossification. The two cases of olecranon osteotomy and one case of olecranon fracture had healed. There were no surgical site infections but two cases of ulnar compression, one of which required neurolysis. There was one case of humeral component loosening after 6years, but the implant was not changed.

DISCUSSION

The clinical range of motion results were comparable to published data. The functional scores were slightly lower, mainly because of the pain factor. The initial results were encouraging and consistent with published data as long as the indications were well-chosen. Based on this retrospective study, total elbow arthroplasty can be a valid alternative in the surgeon's treatment armamentarium for complex distal humerus fractures in elderly patients who have moderate functional demands. Our results support our hypothesis, since we found good functional recovery without associated morbidity.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV retrospective study without comparator.

Immediate passive motion versus immobilization after endoscopic supraspinatus tendon repair: a prospective randomized study

INTRODUCTION

Rehabilitation programs after rotator cuff repair should allow recovery of shoulder function without preventing tendon healing. The aim of this randomized prospective study was to compare the clinical results after two types of postoperative management: immediate passive motion versus immobilization.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We followed 100 patients, mean age 55 years old, who underwent arthroscopic repair of a non-retracted supraspinatus tear. Patients were randomized to receive postoperative management of immediate passive motion or strict immobilization for 6 weeks. A clinical evaluation was performed in 92 patients, and CT arthrography in 82. Mean follow-up was 15 months.

RESULTS

The mean preoperative Constant score improved significantly from 46.1 points to 73.9 at the final follow-up. The rate of intact cuffs was 58.5%. Functional results were statistically better after immediate passive motion with a mean passive external rotation of 58.7° at the final follow-up versus 49.1° after immobilization (P=0.011), a passive anterior elevation of 172.4° versus 163.3° (P=0.094) respectively, a Constant score of 77.6 points versus 69.7 (P=0.045) respectively, and a lower rate of adhesive capsulitis and complex regional pain syndrome. Results for healing seemed to be slightly better with immobilization, but this was not statistically significant: the cuff had a normal appearance in 35.9% of cases after immobilization compared to 25.6% after passive motion, an image of intratendinous addition was found in 25.6% versus 30.2%, punctiform leaks in 23.1% versus 20.9%, and recurrent tears in 15.4% versus 23.3% respectively.

DISCUSSION

The rehabilitation program that results in better tendon healing by preventing postoperative stiffness has not yet been identified. Our results suggest that early passive motion should be authorized: the functional results were better with no significant difference in healing.

Recurrence after arthroscopic Bankart repair: Is quantitative radiological analysis of bone loss of any predictive value?

INTRODUCTION

Bone defects in the humeral head or antero-inferior edge of the glenoid cavity increase recurrence risk following arthroscopic Bankart repair. The present study sought to quantify such preoperative defects using a simple radiological technique and to determine a threshold for elevated risk of recurrence.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrospective study conducted in two centers enrolled patients undergoing primary arthroscopic Bankart repair for isolated anterior shoulder instability in 2005. The principle assessment criterion was revision for recurrent instability. Quantitative radiology comprised: the ratio of notch depth to humeral head radius (D/R) on AP view in internal rotation; Gerber's X ratio between antero-inferior glenoid cavity edge defect length and maximum anteroposterior glenoid cavity diameter on arthro-CT scan; and the D1/D2 ratio between the glenoid joint surface diameters of the pathologic (D1) and healthy (D2) shoulders on Bernageau glenoid profile views. Seventy-seven patients were included, with a mean follow-up of 44 months (range, 36-54).

RESULTS

Overall recurrence rate was 15.6%. Recurrence risk was significantly greater when the humeral notch length was more or equal to 20% of the humeral head diameter and the Gerber ratio more or equal to 40%. On Bernageau views, mean D1/D2 ratio was 4.2% (range, 0-23%) in patients without recurrence, versus 5.1% (range, 0-19) in those with recurrence (P=0.003).

DISCUSSION

Beyond the above thresholds, bone defect as such contraindicates isolated arthroscopic stabilization. The D/R and Gerber ratios are simple and reproducible quantitative measurements can be taken in routine practice, enabling preoperative planning of complementary bone surgery as needed.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV; retrospective cohort study.

Comparison and critical evaluation of rehabilitation and home-based exercises for treating shoulder stiffness: prospective, multicenter study with 148 cases

INTRODUCTION

The goal of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of individual exercises performed as classic rehabilitation or a home program on the clinical progression of patients with shoulder stiffness. Based on this information, the secondary goal was to develop a new rehabilitation protocol.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This prospective, comparative series included 148 cases of shoulder stiffness. There were three treatment groups: T1: classic rehabilitation performed below the pain threshold (58 cases); T2: home program with provocation above the pain threshold (59 cases); T3: home program supervised by a physical therapist (31 cases). The execution, pain level and time spent doing each exercise were compiled for each work session - every day for the first 6 weeks, then every week up to 3 months. Clinical (Constant score) and range of motion evaluations were performed at enrollment, week 6 and month 3.Changes were compared between groups; correlation tests were used to analyse the effectiveness of each exercise during each session.

RESULTS

Other than physical therapy and balneotherapy, classic rehabilitation exercises had a negative effect on clinical progression during the first 3 to 5 weeks (P<0.05), but this did not hinder the occurrence of a slow, continuous clinical improvement (P<0.05). Home programs led to rapid functional progression with improvement directly related to the number of exercises actually performed (P<0.05), however, pain during the day increased and pain at night decreased. Supervision by a physical therapist helped to optimize the home program, with the same result at week 6, but a better result at month 3 (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results of this study, a new treatment protocol for shoulder stiffness was proposed that combines an intensive patient home program with a well-informed physical therapist, who progressively adds classic rehabilitation techniques when they provide the best treatment value for each exercise. Patient education is the key to treatment success.

Management of the stiff shoulder. A prospective multicenter comparative study of the six main techniques in use: 235 cases

INTRODUCTION

Stiffness in the shoulder is a frequent symptom associated with a number of clinical entities whose management remains inadequately defined.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This prospective study of 235 cases of stiffness in the shoulder compared six therapeutic techniques with a mean follow-up of 13 months (range, 3-28 months) (T1: 58 cases, conventional rehabilitation under the pain threshold, T2: 59 cases, self-rehabilitation over the pain threshold, T3: 31 cases, T2 + supervision, T4: 11 cases, T1 + capsular distension, T5: 31 cases, T1 + locoregional anesthesia, T6: 45 cases, T1 + T5 + capsulotomy). The therapeutic power of each technique and its impact on the result were assessed at each self-rehabilitation and rehabilitation session during the first 6 weeks and then at 3 months, 6 months, and at the final revision depending on subjective criteria (pain, discomfort, and morale) and objective criteria (Constant score, goniometric measurements).

RESULTS

Conventional rehabilitation (T1) is less effective than self-rehabilitation over the pain threshold (T2 & T3) during the first 6 weeks (P<0.05). Self-rehabilitation stagnates between the 6th and 12th week except when it is supervised by a therapist (T3). Anesthesia (T4) and capsular distension (T5) do not lead to significantly different progression beyond 6 months. Capsulotomy does not demonstrate greater therapeutic power but its failure rate (persisting stiffness at 1 year) is 0% versus 14-17% for the other techniques (P<0.05).

DISCUSSION

The techniques are complementary and therapeutic success stems from an algorithm adapted to the individual patient with, over the first 3 months, successive self-rehabilitation and conventional rehabilitation, possibly completed by capsular distension or anesthesia between the 3rd and 6th months. In case of failure at 6 months, endoscopic capsulotomy can be proposed. Therapeutic patient education and active participation are the key to treatment success or failure.

Is the high submandibular transmasseteric approach to the mandibular condyle safe for the inferior buccal branch?

PURPOSE

There are basically 3 main approaches for extra-articular mandibular condyle fractures: low cervical, retromandibular and preauricular. These include a risk of facial palsy affecting the marginal mandibular branch. We use a high submandibular transmasseteric approach featuring masseter section 10-20 mm above the mandibular basilar edge. Our null hypothesis was that both the marginal mandibular and the inferior buccal branches are not more at risk than in other surgical approaches.

METHODS

This study was based on 20 parotidomasseteric dissections from 10 embalmed cadaveric heads. We used as reference the vertical line, passing through the mandibular angle, parallel to the preauricular line. We performed measurements of the marginal mandibular and inferior buccal branches' heights.

RESULTS

The inferior buccal branch had an average height of 16.8 mm and the highest standard deviation (7.2). Extremes were, respectively, 32 and 7 mm. The marginal mandibular branch had an average height of 3.2 mm with standard deviation equal to 3.0. Extremes were, respectively, 9 and -3 mm.

CONCLUSION

The high submandibular transmasseteric approach provides great exposure of facial nerve branches lying on the masseter muscle, if even encountered. Through masseteric incision performed between 10 and 20 mm above the basilar edge of the mandible, the marginal mandibular branch is safe from wound with an added safety margin of 4 mm. The surgeon using this approach is most likely to encounter the inferior buccal branch. It can then be avoided under visual control. This makes it a swift and safe approach to the mandibular condyle.

Frohse's arcade is not the exclusive compression site of the radial nerve in its tunnel

INTRODUCTION

The radial tunnel is a musculo-aponeurotic furrow which extends from the lateral epicondyle of humerus to the distal edge of the supinator muscle. The superficial head of the supinator muscle forms a fibrous arch, the arcade of Frohse (AF), which is the most common site of compression of the radial nerve motor branch. The latter is less commonly compressed by the adjacent muscular structures. This tunnel syndrome might be worsened with repeated pronation and supination of the forearm. The double object of that work was: (1) to define the radial nerve anatomic landmarks, (2) to determine the anatomical relationship of the radial nerve main trunk and branches to the peripheral osseous and muscular structures in the anterior aspect of the elbow joint in order to identify which of these conflicting elements are likely to cause a compressive neuropathy.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study design involved the dissection of 30 embalmed cadaveric upper limbs. Anatomic and morphometric investigations of the radial nerve, its terminal and motor branches were carried out. The presence of adhesions between radial nerve and joint capsule, tendons and aponeurotic expansions of epicondylar muscles and supinator arch was investigated. All measurements were taken in both pronation and supination of the forearm.

RESULTS

Neither macroscopic radial compressive neuropathy at the level of the supinator arch nor adhesions between the radial nerve and the joint capsule were found. In four cases (13%), dense fibrous tissue surrounded the radial nerve supply to extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB). The fibrous arch of the supinator muscle arose in a semi-circular manner and was noted to be tendinous in 87% of the extremities and of membranous consistency in the remaining 13%. The length of the AF averaged 25.9 mm. The angle formed by the radial shaft and the supinator arch was 23 degrees. Neither fibrous structures nor adhesions of the deep branch of the radial nerve (DBRN) along its course through the supinator muscle were observed.

DISCUSSION

Anatomic studies have revealed a variable rate of occurrence of a tendinous AF, which range from 30 to 80% (87% in our study) according to authors. It is reported to be a predisposing factor to the development of chronic entrapment neuropathy of the DBRN, especially if it is thick and provides a narrow opening for passage of the DBRN. The tendinous consistency of the supinator arch is believed to develop in adults, in response to repeated rotary movements of the forearm. Repetitive pronation and supination of the forearm induces compression of the radial nerve and its branches between two inextensible structures. The fibrous AF and the proximal end of the radius (radial head and radial tubercle). This condition is aggravated by the supinator muscle repeated activity. Repetitive compression might then promote histological changes in radial tunnel content and progressive development of a local fibrous zone. We also observed that the radial nerve supply to ECRB could be entrapped between the superolateral aspect of the ECRB and the superior edge of the supinator muscle.

[Shoulder calcifying tendinitis]

Calcifying tendinitis is a frequent shoulder disease but the surgical treatment is still debatable. The authors of this symposium reviewed retrospectively 450 patients treated by arthroscopal excision for calcifying tendinitis. Imaging were used to assess the cuff status in every case. The minimum follow-up was five years except for subscapularis and infraspinatus calcification (minimum two years). At the same time, we led a prospective study evaluating the prevalence of the calcifications on 1276 asymptomatic shoulders. The prevalence of rotator cuff calcification was 7.3%, with a female predominance specially in the operated group. Calcifications have been found as well in patients more than 70 years old. The inter- and intraobserver agreement for the A-B-C classification was poor, specially to differentiate the type A and B calcifications. The long-term follow-up allows to prove that the calcifying tendinitis is temporary without any relation with rotator cuff rupture. Recurrence of the calcific deposit after complete disappearance was never observed and the rate of full thickness tears was 3.9% at an average of nine years follow-up (mean age 56 years). These findings allowed to conclude than cuff suture after removing the deposit is not mandatory. However, the preoperative cuff status had a significant influence on the functional results at follow-up. Preoperative associated partial tear of the cuff or a preoperative positive Jobe test affected significantly the results and increased the rate of full thickness tear at follow-up. The subscapularis calcifications were rare (6% of the calcifications) and were associated with further deposit on the cuff. Infraspinatus calcifications were more frequent (20%), mostly associated to over tendons calcifications. The arthroscopic treatment obtained good results independently from the calcification location but the surgical approach should be adapted. Functional results were lower after removing a type C calcification. Acromioplasty improved the results when the calcification was associated with an aggressive acromion or a partial cuff tear.

Anatomical basis for distal sartorius muscle flap for reconstructive surgery below the knee. Anatomical study and case report

We report a case of a woman presenting with a long-term non-healing wound below the tibial tubercle that underwent a successful sartorius muscle flap. We performed an anatomical study of the vascularisation of the sartorius muscle. The vascular supply to the distal part of the sartorius muscle was studied in 15 limbs by dissection and after red ink and latex injections. The artery of the sartorius muscle flap arises most of the time from the saphenous artery or the descending genicular artery and is supplied through anastomoses by branches of the posterior tibial artery and the medial inferior genicular artery. The flap is useful for covering wounds around the knee, as well as the proximal and the middle thirds of the leg. The surgical technique is relatively simple, with a low morbidity from muscle harvesting.

[Proposal for new anterior portals for wrist arthroscopic as a complementary approach to open anterior wrist surgery]

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Morphological and morphometric studies of the wrist ligaments are scarce. The radiocapitatum and scapholunate ligaments play a pivotal role in wrist stability. Classically, a posterior approach is used for arthroscopic procedures, but an anterior approach should be possible. We conducted a cadaver study to search for new anterior portals for wrist arthroscopy.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty-five formol-treated upper limbs were dissected. The classical anterior approach for open wrist surgery was executed. The different elements of the capsule-ligament system of the anterior aspect of the wrist were identified and labeled. The dissection was then extended to the ulna in search of soft points which were identified and evaluated. The different structures generally identified during wrist arthroscopy were noted.

RESULTS

Two potential portals were identified in all wrists: one between the radiolunate ligament and the radio-scapho-capitatum ligament on the radial aspect and one between the radio-lunate ligament and the ulno-lunate ligament. Arthroscopic exploration enabled observation of the scapho-lunate ligament, the luno-triquetral ligament, the triangular complex of the carpus, and the entire inferior aspect of the radial joint surface, with no risk of vessel or nerve injury because of the exposure allowed by the osteosynthesis approach.

DISCUSSION

Wrist arthroscopy is now accepted as a reliable technique not only for diagnostic purposes but also for therapeutic interventions for the treatment of fractures of the lower radius. Most of the arthroscopic portals described in the literature are posterior. The anterior portals described here do not involve any vascular or neurological risk since the radial approach is made under visual control by extension of the open anterior approach and on the ulnar side the noble structures are positioned medially to the ulnar flexor tendon of the carpus. This enables good triangulation necessary for the usual arthroscopic procedures. Finally, these portals have no supplementary morbidity which would be the case with percutaneous portals (injury to the medial nerve, the radial vasculonervous bundle, the radial flexor tendon).

CONCLUSION

These new arthroscopic portals are complementary to the anterior approach for open wrist surgery and enable a natural extension of joint exploration via both the radial and ulnar approaches described in this study.

[Arthroscopic surgery of the acromioclavicular joint.]

Lesion of the acromioclavicular joint is a usual clinical condition because of it superficial situation. It is often involved in trauma of the shoulder girdle. Moreover, degenerative changes are quite always observed for patients over 40. Distal clavicle resection as a treatment of acromioclavicular joint disease had been first described in 1941. Clinical results in term of mobility and shoulder pain are good and durable in time. Referring to the expansion arthroscopic techniques, distal clavicle resection lead to same middle and long term results as open surgery. Arthroscopic procedures have the theoretical advantages of no deltoid disruption and may help the surgeon to diagnose and treat associated lesions such as rotator cuff ruptures. More recently, arthroscopic surgeries for fresh and/or chronic acromioclavicular disjunctions were proposed. These procedures remain in development and need further evaluations.

[Elbow arthroscopy]

This symposium of the French Arthroscopic Society is the 2005 state of the art of elbow arthrosocpy in France. A survey reports 499 cases during 2 years with a rate of complication higher than the arthroscopies of other joints (6% of minor and 1% of major complications). The main indication is the removal of loose bodies. They can come from arthritis, chondromatosis, osteochondritis or fracture. The most accurate radiologic examination is an arthroCTscan. The main pronostic factor is the cartilage status. Arthrolysis is the second indication. We performed a retrospective and a prospective studies to compare open and arthroscopic surgery. Results are almost similar with a significant higher improvement in flexion (7 degrees ) in the open group. Open surgery seems more efficient but with a franck loss of motion in the postoperative course. However, in this group elbows were preoperatively stiffer in relation with a trauma event instead of sport related microtrauma in the arthroscopically treated group. Removal of necrotic fragment combined with abrasion in osteochondritis of the capitulum yields to good results with 82% of patients resuming to sports. Long term prognosis is unknown as the joint line is narrowed at a 3 years follow up. Arthroscopy is usefull in synovial diseases as resection of synovial folds or removal of tumors like villonodular synovitis. In the treatment of epicondylitis, the results of our retrospective study are not so good as those reported in the literature. But in our comparative study the results are similar to the open surgery group. The numerous procedures and the different follow up in these two groups did not allow to give statistical analysis. Elbow arthroscopy is a hyper specialty with more and more advanced procedures.

[Arthroscopic surgery of the acromioclavicular joint]

Lesion of the acromioclavicular joint is a usual clinical condition because of it superficial situation. It is often involved in trauma of the shoulder girdle. Moreover, degenerative changes are quite always observed for patients over 40. Distal clavicle resection as a treatment of acromioclavicular joint disease had been first described in 1941. Clinical results in term of mobility and shoulder pain are good and durable in time. Referring to the expansion arthroscopic techniques, distal clavicle resection lead to same middle and long term results as open surgery. Arthroscopic procedures have the theoretical advantages of no deltoid disruption and may help the surgeon to diagnose and treat associated lesions such as rotator cuff ruptures. More recently, arthroscopic surgeries for fresh and/or chronic acromioclavicular disjunctions were proposed. These procedures remain in development and need further evaluations.

[Adult lateral meniscus]

Meniscal lesion does not mean meniscectomy and this is particularly true for the lateral meniscus. The reputation of mildness of the meniscectomy is usurped. The rate of joint space narrowing after lateral meniscectomy is of 40% at a follow-up of 13 years compared to 28% for the medial meniscus (symposium SFA 1996). Several arguments explain those results: biomechanical: the lateral meniscus contributes to the congruence; particularly the lateral meniscus is the zone where antero-posterior translational during knee flexion is 12 mm. The pejorative effects of lateral meniscectomy have conducted, more though to the medial meniscus, to the concept of meniscal economy. Lateral meniscectomy must be as partial as possible. Particularly, a discoid meniscus presenting a complete tear should be treated by a meniscoplasty in order to shape the meniscus in a more anatomic form than a total meniscectomy. Lateral meniscectomy is indicated in complex or horizontal cleavage, symptomatic, on stable knees. A particular case is the cyst of the lateral meniscus. It is a cystic subcutaneous formation, usual consequence of a horizontal cleaved meniscus of which the particularity is that it opens besides the articulation. The strategy must not consist in the isolated treatment of the cyst. This pathology should be addressed by an arthroscopic meniscectomy reaching the meniscosynovial junction at the level of the cyst. Meniscal repair must be proposed every time if possible. Criteria of reparability are better studied on MRI. Preoperatively MRI is the first choice radiological exam. Two essential indications can be held back: the vertical peripheral longitudinal lesion is on the non-vascularized area, and the horizontal cleaving of the junior athlete (if the cleaving remains purely intra meniscal). Meniscal repair is highly performed when the meniscal tear is associated to a rupture of the ACL (simultaneous reconstruction of the LCA). Postoperative outcome is different of that of a "simple" arthroscopic meniscectomy. The healing process being slow, it suits to protect the suture by a splint in the first month, and with an exclusion of sports with knee torsion during 6 months. Functional results (absence of secondary meniscectomy) and anatomical results (reality of the cicatrisation) are good in 77% of cases (symposium of the French Society of Arthroscopy 2003) at a follow-up of 55 months. Survivorship analysis indicates that majority of the failures occur within two years: this testifies a default of primary cicatrisation. At the studied follow-up, meniscal repair was efficient to protect the cartilage. Lateral meniscus results are better that medial meniscus one. Those data support indications: All suspicion of meniscal lesion must have an MRI preoperatively to confirm the lesion, to localize her and to search criteria of reparability; All vertical longitudinal peripheral lesions can and must be repaired especially in young patients and children; All horizontal cleaving of the junior athletes should be treated by open repair; surgical abstention must be proposed when the lesion is non symptomatic, or when lesion is limited and associated to an ACL tear (in that case isolated ACL reconstruction is proposed), or when clinical symptoms are minimal; Meniscectomy, always arthroscopic, is proposed for a symptomatic lesion in the avascular zone or for a deep horizontal cleavage or a complex tear; Tear of the discoid meniscus should be treated by meniscoplasty. A painful knee after lateral meniscectomy might be due to a too limited initial meniscectomy: an iterative meniscectomy may be indicated or lateral femorotibial arthritis, especially after subtotal or total meniscectomy. In this last case and after failure of usual medical treatment such as viscosupplementation surgery may be indicated. Osteotomy in order to unload the lateral femorotibial compartment gives a partial response as the shearing forces remain. This osteotomy is indicated only if the lower limb axis is normal or in valgus. Meniscal allograft is an option in young patients in grade I or II arthritis. Results are promising. Rene Verdonk's series show a survivorship analysis of 75% at 7 years. Early diagnosis of a postmeniscectomy syndrome before cartilaginous lesions occur is essential for an adapted treatment. In conclusion, lateral meniscectomy are less frequent than those of the medial meniscus but their prognosis is less favorable. They should be early diagnosed (MRI). Treatment options are various: abstention, meniscectomy, and repair. Painful post lateral meniscectomy syndrome may be treated by a new surgical option: meniscal allograft.

Finite element analysis of the strain distribution in the humeral head tubercles during abduction: comparison of young and osteoporotic bone

AIM

The aim of this work was to design an accurate 3D digital model of the humerus and rotator cuff muscles. This model was then used to study strain distribution in humeral tubercles according to bone density.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The geometry of bone and muscle structures was reproduced using SURFDRIVER software, based on anatomical sections, CT scans and MRI images from the Visible Human Project image library. The contours were transferred to PATRAN software to rebuild volumes and mesh them. Calculations of strains and their distribution were performed using NASTRAN software. All the elements were considered to be isotropes.

RESULTS

The study of the distribution of stress magnitude according to the type of bone modeled, shows that some stresses in cortical bone are greater than those in cancellous bone and are also greater in old bone, implying more deformation in old bone at constant force. This study also shows that stresses do not penetrate deeply into cancellous tissue.

CONCLUSION

Observing the simulation results led understanding of the pathology of certain fractures of the proximal end of the humerus. This study also helped explain why certain types of osteosynthesis fail due to tubercles reconstruction failures.

New findings on intermetacarpal fat pads: anatomy and imaging

Many studies have focused on the functional importance of the gliding structures of the hand. These structures are clinically important in reconstructive surgery and mechanically essential for an efficient hand grasp. The aims of this study were to first review the intermetacarpal space and then focus on its fatty tissue, the intermetacarpal fat pad. This study used dissections and histological analysis of fetal and adult hands and CT scans of adult hands. The intermetacarpal fat pads are well-defined adipose structures located between the heads of the second, third, fourth and fifth metacarpal bones. They are located in spaces defined by the palmar fascia and its deep expansions. These spaces are closed distally but open proximally into the tunnels surrounding the flexor tendons (Legueu and Juvara canals). The pads are composed of non-mobilizable fat; they protect the neurovascular pedicles of the fingers. They may act with the palmar skin to mitigate compressive and shear forces during gripping. Finally they may be involved in neurological symptoms if their size is increased by any trauma or inflammatory process.