The lung cytokine microenvironment influences molecular events in the lymph nodes during Th1 and Th2 respiratory mucosal sensitization to antigen in vivo

Originally defined by their patterns of cytokine production, Th1 and Th2 cells have been described more recently to express other genes differentially as well, at least in vitro. In this study we compared the expression of Th1- and Th2-associated genes directly during in vivo sensitization to ovalbumin (OVA) in Th1- and Th2-polarized models of airways inflammation. Th1-polarized airway inflammation was achieved by the intranasal instillation of adenoviral vectors (Ad) encoding granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin (IL)-12, followed by daily aerosolizations of OVA; instillation of Ad/GM-CSF alone with OVA aerosolization led to Th2-polarized responses. Lymph nodes were obtained at various time-points, RNA extracted, and analysed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Consistent with reports from in vitro and human studies, mice undergoing Th1-polarized inflammation showed preferential expression of the transcription factor t-bet, the chemokines IFN-gamma inducible protein (IP)-10 and macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha (MIP-1-alpha), and the chemokine receptor CCR5. In contrast, the transcription factor GATA-3, the chemokines I-309 and thymus and activation regulated chemokine (TARC), and the chemokine receptors CCR3 and CCR4 were preferentially expressed in the Th2 model. Importantly, we also show that Ad/transgene expression remains compartmentalized to the lung after intranasal instillation. Flow cytometric analysis of lung myeloid dendritic cells indicated that B7.1 was expressed more strongly in the Th1 model than in the Th2 model. These studies provide a direct comparison of gene expression in in vivo Th1- and Th2-polarized models, and demonstrate that molecular events in the lymph nodes can be altered fundamentally by cytokine expression at distant mucosal sites.

Cytokine therapeutics for asthma: an appraisal of current evidence and future prospects

Although current pharmacopoeia is effective in alleviating asthma symptomatology, it is equally unable to modify the fundamental immunological basis of the allergic diathesis. The explosion in knowledge of the immunobiology of cytokines that has occurred in the last decade has remarkably clarified our understanding of the pathogenesis of allergic asthma, and has unleashed a plethora of compelling opportunities. In the first part of this review, we will summarize current knowledge on the pathogenesis of allergic asthma, with particular emphasis on relevant cytokine networks. This will position us to appraise critically initiatives in the search to modulate cytokine targets that are key to the expression of the allergic asthma phenotype. We will review the use of recombinant cytokines, soluble cytokine receptors, cytokine receptor antagonists and cytokine inhibitors, in pre-clinical and clinical development. Finally, we will assess the applicability of transgene-based modalities, including anti-sense oligonucleotide technology and gene therapy, as novel therapeutic strategies in the treatment of allergic asthma.

Regulation of allergic mucosal sensitization by interleukin-12 gene transfer to the airway

Expression of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in the airway allows allergic sensitization to ovalbumin (OVA) in an experimental protocol that others have shown to induce inhalation tolerance. The ensuing response is characterized by T helper (Th)2 cytokines, marked eosinophilia in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and the tissue, and goblet-cell hyperplasia. These findings, which underscore the importance of the airway microenvironment in the development of immune responses to airborne antigens, prompted us to investigate whether a Type 1 polarized cytokine milieu in the airway would modulate the allergic sensitization. To this end, we concurrently expressed GM-CSF and interleukin (IL)-12 in the airway, using an adenovirus-mediated gene transfer approach. Coexpression of IL-12 did not prevent the development of an antigen-specific immune inflammatory response, but altered its phenotype. Whereas a similar total cell number was observed in the BALF, airway eosinophilia was abrogated. Histologic evaluation of the tissue corroborated the findings in the BALF and demonstrated that IL-12 coexpression prevented goblet-cell hyperplasia. Expression of IL-12 decreased IL-4 and IL-5 content in the BALF by about 80 and 95%, respectively, and IL-5 in the serum by approximately 80%. In contrast, interferon (IFN)-gamma was increased in both BALF and serum. Similarly, we observed a Th2/Th1 shift in OVA-specific cytokine production in vitro. Recall challenge with OVA in vivo after resolution of the initial inflammatory response demonstrated that the effect of IL-12 was persistent. IL-12-mediated inhibition of airway eosinophilia was mainly IFN-gamma-independent, whereas inhibition of OVA-specific IgE synthesis was IFN-gamma-dependent. Our data underscore the importance of the airway microenvironment in the elicitation of immune responses to environmental antigens.

GM-CSF transgene expression in the airway allows aerosolized ovalbumin to induce allergic sensitization in mice

The purpose of this study was to explore whether repeated exposure to aerosolized ovalbumin (OVA) in the context of local expression of GM-CSF can initiate a Th2-driven, eosinophilic inflammation in the airways. On day -1, Balb/c mice were infected intranasally with an adenovirus construct expressing GM-CSF (Ad/GM-CSF). From day 0 to day 9 mice were exposed daily to an OVA aerosol. Mice exposed to OVA alone did not show any evidence of airway inflammation. Mice receiving both Ad/GM-CSF and aerosolized OVA exhibited marked airway inflammation characterized by eosinophilia and goblet cell hyperplasia. Migration of eosinophils into the airway was preceded by a rise in IL-5 and IL-4. Both IL-5 and class II MHC were critically required to generate airway eosinophilia. After resolution, airway eosinophilia was reconstituted after a single OVA exposure. Flow cytometric analysis of dispersed lung cells revealed an increase in macrophages and dendritic cells expressing B7.1 and B7.2, and expansion of activated (CD69-expressing) CD4 and CD8 T cells in mice exposed to OVA and Ad/GM-CSF. Our data indicate that expression of GM-CSF in the airway compartment increases local antigen presentation capacity, and concomitantly facilitates the development of an antigen-specific, eosinophilic inflammatory response to an otherwise innocuous antigen.

Mediated facilitation: comparison of two methods and two paradigms

The present study was designed to compare the anticipation and pairing-test methods of paired-associate presentation in a three-stage mediation design. In addition, a comparison was made of the mediation effects in chaining and response equivalence paradigms. The results indicated a mediation effect in all conditions, but there was essentially no difference between the chaining paradigm and the response equivalence paradigm. Comparisons of methods of presentation indicated that the pairing-test method was superior to the anticipation method on the two acquisition stages of the three-stage design. However, on the final or test stage the two methods of presentation did not differ.

Predicting paired-associate learning speed: an alternate MLAT

An alternate form of Part V of the Modern Language Aptitude Test has been developed which may serve as an effective means of controlling for differences in rote learning ability. Such a test seems particularly useful in situations where pre-selection of Ss according to rote learning ability is desired.