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McDonald RI, Aronson MFJ, Beatley T, Beller E, Bazo M, Grossinger R, Jessup K, Mansur AV, Puppim de Oliveira JA, Panlasigui S, Burg J, Pevzner N, Shanahan D, Stoneburner L, Rudd A, Spotswood E. Denser and greener cities: Green interventions to achieve both urban density and nature. People and Nature 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/pan3.10423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Robert I. McDonald
- Center for Sustainability Science, The Nature Conservancy in Europe Berlin Germany
- CUNY Institute for Demographic Research New York New York USA
- Humboldt University Berlin Germany
| | - Myla F. J. Aronson
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey New Brunswick New Jersey USA
| | - Timothy Beatley
- School of Architecture University of Virginia Charlottesville Virginia USA
| | - Erin Beller
- Real Estate & Workplace Services Sustainability Team Google Mountain View California USA
| | - Micaela Bazo
- Urban Nature Lab San Francisco Estuary Institute Richmond California USA
| | - Robin Grossinger
- Urban Nature Lab San Francisco Estuary Institute Richmond California USA
| | - Kelsey Jessup
- The Nature Conservancy in California San Francisco California USA
| | - Andressa V. Mansur
- Department of Anthropology University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
- Institute for Resilient Infrastructure Systems University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
| | | | | | - Joe Burg
- Urban Nature Lab San Francisco Estuary Institute Richmond California USA
| | - Nicholas Pevzner
- Department of Landscape Architecture, Weitzman School of Design University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Pennsylvania USA
| | - Danielle Shanahan
- Zealandia Centre for People and Nature Wellington New Zealand
- Te Herenga Waka Victoria University of Wellington Wellington New Zealand
| | - Lauren Stoneburner
- Urban Nature Lab San Francisco Estuary Institute Richmond California USA
| | - Andrew Rudd
- UN‐Habitat, Two United Nations Plaza New York New York USA
| | - Erica Spotswood
- Urban Nature Lab San Francisco Estuary Institute Richmond California USA
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Conley G, McDonald RI, Nodine T, Chapman T, Holland C, Hawkins C, Beck N. Assessing the influence of urban greenness and green stormwater infrastructure on hydrology from satellite remote sensing. Sci Total Environ 2022; 817:152723. [PMID: 34979231 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Green stormwater infrastructure (GSI), which includes features like rain gardens, constructed wetlands, or urban tree canopy, is now widely recognized as a means to reduce urban runoff impacts and meet municipal water quality permit requirements. Many co-benefits of GSI are related to increased vegetative cover, which can be measured with satellite imagery via spectral indices such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). In urban landscapes, there remain critical gaps in understanding how urban greenness and GSI influence hydrology. Here, we quantify these relationships to assess the feasibility of tracking the effectiveness of urban greening for improving downstream hydrologic conditions. We combined hydrologic data from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) gauges with an NDVI time series (1985-2019) derived from Landsat satellite imagery, and synthesis of GSI implementation data from a set of 372 urbanized watersheds across the United States. We used a multivariate panel modeling approach to account for spatial and time varying factors (rainfall, temperature, urban cover expansion) in an effort to isolate the relationships of interest. After accounting for expansion of urban boundaries, only 32 watersheds (9%) showed significant greenness trends, a majority of which were reductions. Urban greenness had significant influences on downstream flow responses, so that on average, a 10% greenness increase showed a corresponding reduction of total flow (-3.8%), flow variance (-7.7%), peak flows (-4.7%), high flows (-7.6%), flashiness (-2.2%), and high flow frequency (-1.5%); and a corresponding increase in baseflow (4.3%). For a subset of these watersheds for which GSI data were available (n = 48), the level of GSI implementation showed a significant, but weak influence on urban greenness with a 20% increase in BMP density corresponding to a greenness increase of 0.9%. The study results may support valuation and verification of GSI co-benefits in urbanized landscapes at the watershed scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary Conley
- 2NDNATURE, 500 Seabright Avenue, Santa Cruz, CA 95062, USA.
| | - Robert I McDonald
- Center for Sustainability Science, The Nature Conservancy, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Tyler Nodine
- 2NDNATURE, 500 Seabright Avenue, Santa Cruz, CA 95062, USA
| | - Teresa Chapman
- The Nature Conservancy in Colorado, 2424 Spruce Street. Boulder, CO 80302, USA
| | - Craig Holland
- The Nature Conservancy, 322 8th Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA
| | - Christopher Hawkins
- The Nature Conservancy in Colorado, 2424 Spruce Street. Boulder, CO 80302, USA
| | - Nicole Beck
- 2NDNATURE, 500 Seabright Avenue, Santa Cruz, CA 95062, USA
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McDonald RI, Biswas T, Sachar C, Housman I, Boucher TM, Balk D, Nowak D, Spotswood E, Stanley CK, Leyk S. The tree cover and temperature disparity in US urbanized areas: Quantifying the association with income across 5,723 communities. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249715. [PMID: 33909628 PMCID: PMC8081227 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Urban tree cover provides benefits to human health and well-being, but previous studies suggest that tree cover is often inequitably distributed. Here, we use National Agriculture Imagery Program digital ortho photographs to survey the tree cover inequality for Census blocks in US large urbanized areas, home to 167 million people across 5,723 municipalities and other Census-designated places. We compared tree cover to summer land surface temperature, as measured using Landsat imagery. In 92% of the urbanized areas surveyed, low-income blocks have less tree cover than high-income blocks. On average, low-income blocks have 15.2% less tree cover and are 1.5⁰C hotter than high-income blocks. The greatest difference between low- and high-income blocks was found in urbanized areas in the Northeast of the United States, where low-income blocks in some urbanized areas have 30% less tree cover and are 4.0⁰C hotter. Even after controlling for population density and built-up intensity, the positive association between income and tree cover is significant, as is the positive association between proportion non-Hispanic white and tree cover. We estimate, after controlling for population density, that low-income blocks have 62 million fewer trees than high-income blocks, equal to a compensatory value of $56 billion ($1,349/person). An investment in tree planting and natural regeneration of $17.6 billion would be needed to close the tree cover disparity, benefitting 42 million people in low-income blocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert I. McDonald
- Center for Sustainability Science, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Tanushree Biswas
- California Program, The Nature Conservancy, Sacramento, California, United States of America
| | - Cedilla Sachar
- CUNY Institute for Demographic Research and CUNY Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Ian Housman
- Independent Researcher, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Timothy M. Boucher
- Global Science Program, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Deborah Balk
- CUNY Institute for Demographic Research and Marxe School of International and Public Affairs, Baruch College, City University of New York, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - David Nowak
- Northern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Syracuse, New York, United States of America
| | - Erica Spotswood
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, California, United States of America
| | - Charlotte K. Stanley
- California Program, The Nature Conservancy, Sacramento, California, United States of America
| | - Stefan Leyk
- Geography Department, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
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Venkataramanan V, Lopez D, McCuskey DJ, Kiefus D, McDonald RI, Miller WM, Packman AI, Young SL. Knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and behavior related to green infrastructure for flood management: A systematic literature review. Sci Total Environ 2020; 720:137606. [PMID: 32325585 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Green infrastructure (GI), which mimics natural hydrological systems, is a promising solution for flood management at the intersection of urban built infrastructure and natural systems. However, it has not yet achieved widespread uptake, due in part to insufficient understanding of human dimensions of the broader socio-ecological-technical system. We therefore conducted a multidisciplinary systematic literature review to synthesize research on people's existing knowledge about flood risk and GI, and how that shapes their attitudes and motivation to adopt new solutions. We systematically screened 21,207 studies on GI for flood management; 85 met our inclusion criteria. We qualitatively analyzed these studies to extract results on knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and behavior relating to GI for flood management. Overall, knowledge of GI was low across the 44 studies in which it was evaluated. Seventy studies assessed attitudes about GI, including the functional, aesthetic, health and safety, recreational, conservation, financial, and cultural value of GI, albeit their measurement was inconsistent. Willingness to implement or pay for GI varied considerably across 55 studies in which it was measured. Twenty studies measured and documented behavior relating to GI use, and these found low rates of adoption. Few studies systematically assessed the role of demographic, socio-economic, or geographic characteristics that could influence individuals' knowledge, attitudes, intentions or behavior, and thereby the success of GI programs. We recommend that researchers should more systematically capture data on human dimensions of GI (i.e. knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and behavior) across diverse settings to improve program design and uptake, especially among vulnerable populations. Greater attention to the social component of the socio-ecological-technical system will help ensure that GI programs are equitable, inclusive, and sustainable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidya Venkataramanan
- Center for Water Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Denise Lopez
- Department of Sociology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - David J McCuskey
- School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Daniel Kiefus
- Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Robert I McDonald
- Build Healthy Cities Program, The Nature Conservancy, 4245 Fairfax Dr., Arlington, VA, USA
| | - William M Miller
- Center for Engineering Sustainability and Resilience, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Aaron I Packman
- Center for Water Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Sera L Young
- Center for Water Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.
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McDonald RI, Kroeger T, Zhang P, Hamel P. The Value of US Urban Tree Cover for Reducing Heat-Related Health Impacts and Electricity Consumption. Ecosystems 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-019-00395-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Fargione JE, Bassett S, Boucher T, Bridgham SD, Conant RT, Cook-Patton SC, Ellis PW, Falcucci A, Fourqurean JW, Gopalakrishna T, Gu H, Henderson B, Hurteau MD, Kroeger KD, Kroeger T, Lark TJ, Leavitt SM, Lomax G, McDonald RI, Megonigal JP, Miteva DA, Richardson CJ, Sanderman J, Shoch D, Spawn SA, Veldman JW, Williams CA, Woodbury PB, Zganjar C, Baranski M, Elias P, Houghton RA, Landis E, McGlynn E, Schlesinger WH, Siikamaki JV, Sutton-Grier AE, Griscom BW. Natural climate solutions for the United States. Sci Adv 2018; 4:eaat1869. [PMID: 30443593 PMCID: PMC6235523 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aat1869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/12/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Limiting climate warming to <2°C requires increased mitigation efforts, including land stewardship, whose potential in the United States is poorly understood. We quantified the potential of natural climate solutions (NCS)-21 conservation, restoration, and improved land management interventions on natural and agricultural lands-to increase carbon storage and avoid greenhouse gas emissions in the United States. We found a maximum potential of 1.2 (0.9 to 1.6) Pg CO2e year-1, the equivalent of 21% of current net annual emissions of the United States. At current carbon market prices (USD 10 per Mg CO2e), 299 Tg CO2e year-1 could be achieved. NCS would also provide air and water filtration, flood control, soil health, wildlife habitat, and climate resilience benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Scott D. Bridgham
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
| | - Richard T. Conant
- Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Susan C. Cook-Patton
- The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD 21037, USA
| | | | | | - James W. Fourqurean
- Marine Sciences Program, Florida International University, North Miami, FL 33181, USA
| | | | - Huan Gu
- Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, MA 01610, USA
| | - Benjamin Henderson
- Trade and Agriculture Directorate, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris 75016, France
| | - Matthew D. Hurteau
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Kevin D. Kroeger
- Woods Hole Coastal and Marine Science Center, United States Geological Survey, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - Timm Kroeger
- The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
| | - Tyler J. Lark
- Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53726, USA
| | | | - Guy Lomax
- The Nature Conservancy, Oxford OX1 1HU, UK
| | | | | | - Daniela A. Miteva
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Development Economics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Curtis J. Richardson
- Duke University Wetland Center, Nicholas School of the Environment, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | | | - David Shoch
- TerraCarbon LLC, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA
| | - Seth A. Spawn
- Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53726, USA
| | - Joseph W. Veldman
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | | | - Peter B. Woodbury
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | | | - Marci Baranski
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250, USA
| | | | | | - Emily Landis
- The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
| | - Emily McGlynn
- Department of Agriculture and Resource Economics, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | | | - Juha V. Siikamaki
- International Union for Conservation of Nature, Washington, DC 20009, USA
| | - Ariana E. Sutton-Grier
- The Nature Conservancy, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
- Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, USA
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Abstract
Energy production in the United States for domestic use and export is predicted to rise 27% by 2040. We quantify projected energy sprawl (new land required for energy production) in the United States through 2040. Over 200,000 km2 of additional land area will be directly impacted by energy development. When spacing requirements are included, over 800,000 km2 of additional land area will be affected by energy development, an area greater than the size of Texas. This pace of development in the United States is more than double the historic rate of urban and residential development, which has been the greatest driver of conversion in the United States since 1970, and is higher than projections for future land use change from residential development or agriculture. New technology now places 1.3 million km2 that had not previously experienced oil and gas development at risk of development for unconventional oil and gas. Renewable energy production can be sustained indefinitely on the same land base, while extractive energy must continually drill and mine new areas to sustain production. We calculated the number of years required for fossil energy production to expand to cover the same area as renewables, if both were to produce the same amount of energy each year. The land required for coal production would grow to equal or exceed that of wind, solar and geothermal energy within 2–31 years. In contrast, it would take hundreds of years for oil production to have the same energy sprawl as biofuels. Meeting energy demands while conserving nature will require increased energy conservation, in addition to distributed renewable energy and appropriate siting and mitigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne M. Trainor
- School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JF); (AMT)
| | - Robert I. McDonald
- Global Cities Program, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Joseph Fargione
- North America Region, The Nature Conservancy, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JF); (AMT)
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McDonald RI. The effectiveness of conservation interventions to overcome the urban-environmental paradox. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2015; 1355:1-14. [DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Revised: 02/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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McDonald RI, Girvetz EH. Two challenges for U.S. irrigation due to climate change: increasing irrigated area in wet states and increasing irrigation rates in dry states. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65589. [PMID: 23755255 PMCID: PMC3673974 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 04/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Agricultural irrigation practices will likely be affected by climate change. In this paper, we use a statistical model relating observed water use by U.S. producers to the moisture deficit, and then use this statistical model to project climate changes impact on both the fraction of agricultural land irrigated and the irrigation rate (m³ ha⁻¹). Data on water withdrawals for US states (1985-2005) show that both quantities are highly positively correlated with moisture deficit (precipitation--PET). If current trends hold, climate change would increase agricultural demand for irrigation in 2090 by 4.5-21.9 million ha (B1 scenario demand: 4.5-8.7 million ha, A2 scenario demand: 9.1-21.9 million ha). Much of this new irrigated area would occur in states that currently have a wet climate and a small fraction of their agricultural land currently irrigated, posing a challenge to policymakers in states with less experience with strict regulation of agriculture water use. Moreover, most of this expansion will occur in states where current agricultural production has relatively low market value per hectare, which may make installation of irrigation uneconomical without significant changes in crops or practices by producers. Without significant increases in irrigation efficiency, climate change would also increase the average irrigation rate from 7,963 to 8,400-10,415 m³ ha⁻¹ (B1 rate: 8,400-9,145 m³ ha⁻¹, A2 rate: 9,380-10,415 m³ ha⁻¹). The irrigation rate will increase the most in states that already have dry climates and large irrigation rates, posing a challenge for water supply systems in these states. Accounting for both the increase in irrigated area and irrigation rate, total withdrawals might increase by 47.7-283.4 billion m³ (B1 withdrawal: 47.7-106.0 billion m³, A2 withdrawal: 117.4-283.4 billion m³). Increases in irrigation water-use efficiency, particularly by reducing the prevalence of surface irrigation, could eliminate the increase in total irrigation withdrawals in many states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert I McDonald
- Central Science Program, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, United States of America.
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McDonald RI, Olden JD, Opperman JJ, Miller WM, Fargione J, Revenga C, Higgins JV, Powell J. Energy, water and fish: biodiversity impacts of energy-sector water demand in the United States depend on efficiency and policy measures. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50219. [PMID: 23185581 PMCID: PMC3503977 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 10/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Rising energy consumption in coming decades, combined with a changing energy mix, have the potential to increase the impact of energy sector water use on freshwater biodiversity. We forecast changes in future water use based on various energy scenarios and examine implications for freshwater ecosystems. Annual water withdrawn/manipulated would increase by 18-24%, going from 1,993,000-2,628,000 Mm(3) in 2010 to 2,359,000-3,271,000 Mm(3) in 2035 under the Reference Case of the Energy Information Administration (EIA). Water consumption would more rapidly increase by 26% due to increased biofuel production, going from 16,700-46,400 Mm(3) consumption in 2010 to 21,000-58,400 Mm(3) consumption in 2035. Regionally, water use in the Southwest and Southeast may increase, with anticipated decreases in water use in some areas of the Midwest and Northeast. Policies that promote energy efficiency or conservation in the electric sector would reduce water withdrawn/manipulated by 27-36 m(3)GJ(-1) (0.1-0.5 m(3)GJ(-1) consumption), while such policies in the liquid fuel sector would reduce withdrawal/manipulation by 0.4-0.7 m(3)GJ(-1) (0.2-0.3 m(3)GJ(-1) consumption). The greatest energy sector withdrawal/manipulation are for hydropower and thermoelectric cooling, although potential new EPA rules that would require recirculating cooling for thermoelectric plants would reduce withdrawal/manipulation by 441,000 Mm(3) (20,300 Mm(3) consumption). The greatest consumptive energy sector use is evaporation from hydroelectric reservoirs, followed by irrigation water for biofuel feedstocks and water used for electricity generation from coal. Historical water use by the energy sector is related to patterns of fish species endangerment, where water resource regions with a greater fraction of available surface water withdrawn by hydropower or consumed by the energy sector correlated with higher probabilities of imperilment. Since future increases in energy-sector surface water use will occur in areas of high fish endemism (e.g., Southeast), additional management and policy actions will be needed to minimize further species imperilment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert I McDonald
- Worldwide Office, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, United States of America.
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McDonald RI, Douglas I, Revenga C, Hale R, Grimm N, Grönwall J, Fekete B. Global urban growth and the geography of water availability, quality, and delivery. Ambio 2011; 40:437-46. [PMID: 21848133 PMCID: PMC3357818 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-011-0152-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2010] [Revised: 03/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Globally, urban growth will add 1.5 billion people to cities by 2030, making the difficult task of urban water provisions even more challenging. In this article, we develop a conceptual framework of urban water provision as composed of three axes: water availability, water quality, and water delivery. For each axis, we calculate quantitative proxy measures for all cities with more than 50,000 residents, and then briefly discuss the strategies cities are using in response if they are deficient on one of the axes. We show that 523 million people are in cities where water availability may be an issue, 890 million people are in cities where water quality may be an issue, and 1.3 billion people are in cities where water delivery may be an issue. Tapping into groundwater is a widespread response, regardless of the management challenge, with many cities unsustainably using this resource. The strategies used by cities deficient on the water delivery axis are different than for cities deficient on the water quantity or water quality axis, as lack of financial resources pushes cities toward a different and potentially less effective set of strategies.
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Abstract
Urban growth reduces open space in and around cities, impacting biodiversity and ecosystem services. Using land-cover and population data, we examined land consumption and open space loss between 1990 and 2000 for all 274 metropolitan areas in the contiguous United States. Nationally, 1.4 million ha of open space was lost, and the amount lost in a given city was correlated with population growth (r(272) = 0.85, P<0.001). In 2000, cities varied in per capita land consumption by an order of magnitude, from 459 m2/person in New York to 5393 m2/person in Grand Forks, ND. The per capita land consumption (m2/person) of most cities decreased on average over the decade from 1,564 to 1,454 m 2/person, but there was substantial regional variation and some cities even increased. Cities with greater conservation funding or more reform-minded zoning tended to decrease in per capita land consumption more than other cities. The majority of developed area in cities is in low-density neighborhoods housing a small proportion of urban residents, with Gini coefficients that quantify this developed land inequality averaging 0.63. Our results suggest conservation funding and reform-minded zoning decrease per capita open space loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert I McDonald
- Worldwide Office, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, United States of America.
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McDonald RI, Yuan-Farrell C, Fievet C, Moeller M, Kareiva P, Foster D, Gragson T, Kinzig A, Kuby L, Redman C. Estimating the effect of protected lands on the development and conservation of their surroundings. Conserv Biol 2007; 21:1526-1536. [PMID: 18173476 DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00799.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The fate of private lands is widely seen as key to the fate of biodiversity in much of the world. Organizations that work to protect biodiversity on private lands often hope that conservation actions on one piece of land will leverage the actions of surrounding landowners. Few researchers have, however, examined whether protected lands do in fact encourage land conservation nearby or how protected lands affect development in the surrounding landscape. Using spatiotemporal data sets on land cover and land protection for three sites (western North Carolina, central Massachusetts, and central Arizona), we examined whether the existence of a protected area correlates with an increased rate of nearby land conservation or a decreased rate of nearby land development. At all sites, newly protected conservation areas tended to cluster close to preexisting protected areas. This may imply that the geography of contemporary conservation actions is influenced by past decisions on land protection, often made for reasons far removed from concerns about biodiversity. On the other hand, we found no evidence that proximity to protected areas correlates with a reduced rate of nearby land development. Indeed, on two of our three sites the development rate was significantly greater in regions with more protected land. This suggests that each conservation action should be justified and valued largely for what is protected on the targeted land, without much hope of broader conservation leverage effects.
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Abstract
Workplace injuries at the University of Queensland Dental School during the period 1992-1994 were assessed to determine their incidence, and the associated indirect costs, causal factors, and appropriate preventive strategies. Overall, dental chairside assistants experienced a higher incidence of injuries than students both on a per worker and per time basis. Of the injuries with a low risk of cross-infection, burns and scalds from sterilizing equipment, and eye injuries in laboratories were the most common. This emphasizes the importance of wearing appropriate protective equipment in areas outside the treatment zone, and the need for signage and education. Common causes of sharps injuries were burs left in handpieces, two-handed needle recapping, and cleaning of probes in the sterilizing room. Changes to techniques and equipment would prevent such incidents. A range of factors which contribute to the calculation of indirect costs following injuries in the dental workplace are identified.
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