Sleep quality is associated with vasopressin methylation in pregnant and postpartum women with a history of psychosocial stress

BACKGROUND

The relationship between disturbed sleep and stress is well-documented. Sleep disorders and stress are highly prevalent during the perinatal period, and both are known to contribute to a number of adverse maternal and foetal outcomes. Arginine vasopressin (AVP) is a hormone and a neuropeptide that is involved in stress response, social bonding and circadian regulation of the sleep-wake cycle. Whether the AVP system is involved in regulation of stress response and sleep quality in the context of the perinatal mental health is currently unknown. The objective of the present study was to assess the relationship between levels of cumulative and ongoing psychosocial risk, levels of disordered sleep and AVP methylation in a community sample of pregnant and postpartum women.

METHODS

A sample of 316 participants completed a battery of questionnaires during the second trimester of pregnancy (PN2, 12-14 weeks gestation), third trimester (PN3, 32-34 weeks gestation), and at 7-9 weeks postpartum (PP). Disordered sleep was measured using the Sleep Symptom Checklist at PN2, PN3 and PP; cumulative psychosocial risk was assessed with the Antenatal Risk Questionnaire (ANRQ) at PN2; salivary DNA was collected at the follow-up (FU, 2.9 years postpartum); and % methylation were calculated for AVP and for two of the three AVP receptor genes (AVPR1a and AVPR1b). Women were separated into high (HighPR) and low (LowPR) psychosocial risk groups, based on their scores on the ANRQ.

RESULTS

Women in the HighPR group had significantly worse sleep disturbances during PN2 (p < .001) and PN3 (p < .001), but not at PP (p = .146) than women in the LowPR group. In HighPR participants only, methylation of AVP at intron 1 negatively correlated with sleep disturbances at PN2 (r_s=-.390, p = .001), PN3 (r_s=-.384, p = .002) and at PP (r_s= -.269, p = .032). There was no association between sleep disturbances and AVPR1a or AVPR1b methylation, or between sleep disturbances and any of the AVP methylation for the LowPR group. Lastly, cumulative psychosocial stress was a moderator for the relationship between AVP intron 1 methylation and disordered sleep at PN2 (p < .001, adjusted R² = .105), PN2 (p < .001, adjusted R² = .088) and PP (p = .003, adjusted R² = .064).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that cumulative psychosocial stress exacerbates sleep disorders in pregnant women, and that salivary DNA methylation patterns of the AVP gene may be seen as a marker of biological predisposition to stress and sleep reactivity during the perinatal period. Further research is needed to establish causal links between AVP methylation, sleep and stress.

Collaborative meta-analysis of individual participant data from observational studies of Lp-PLA2 and cardiovascular diseases

BACKGROUND

A large number of observational epidemiological studies have reported generally positive associations between circulating mass and activity levels of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) and the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Few studies have been large enough to provide reliable estimates in different circumstances, such as in different subgroups (e.g., by age group, sex, or smoking status) or at different Lp-PLA2 levels. Moreover, most published studies have related disease risk only to baseline values of Lp-PLA2 markers (which can lead to substantial underestimation of any risk relationships because of within-person variability over time) and have used different approaches to adjustment for possible confounding factors.

OBJECTIVES

By combination of data from individual participants from all relevant observational studies in a systematic 'meta-analysis', with correction for regression dilution (using available data on serial measurements of Lp-PLA2), the Lp-PLA2 Studies Collaboration will aim to characterize more precisely than has previously been possible the strength and shape of the age and sex-specific associations of plasma Lp-PLA2 with coronary heart disease (and, where data are sufficient, with other vascular diseases, such as ischaemic stroke). It will also help to determine to what extent such associations are independent of possible confounding factors and to explore potential sources of heterogeneity among studies, such as those related to assay methods and study design. It is anticipated that the present collaboration will serve as a framework to investigate related questions on Lp-PLA2 and cardiovascular outcomes.

METHODS

A central database is being established containing data on circulating Lp-PLA2 values, sex and other potential confounding factors, age at baseline Lp-PLA2 measurement, age at event or at last follow-up, major vascular morbidity and cause-specific mortality. Information about any repeat measurements of Lp-PLA2 and potential confounding factors has been sought to allow adjustment for possible confounding and correction for regression dilution. The analyses will involve age-specific regression models. Synthesis of the available observational studies of Lp-PLA2 will yield information on a total of about 15 000 cardiovascular disease endpoints.

Lathyrism-induced alterations in collagen cross-links influence the mechanical properties of bone material without affecting the mineral

In the present study a rat animal model of lathyrism was employed to decipher whether anatomically confined alterations in collagen cross-links are sufficient to influence the mechanical properties of whole bone. Animal experiments were performed under an ethics committee approved protocol. Sixty-four female (47 day old) rats of equivalent weights were divided into four groups (16 per group): Controls were fed a semi-synthetic diet containing 0.6% calcium and 0.6% phosphorus for 2 or 4 weeks and β-APN treated animals were fed additionally with β-aminopropionitrile (0.1% dry weight). At the end of this period the rats in the four groups were sacrificed, and L2-L6 vertebra were collected. Collagen cross-links were determined by both biochemical and spectroscopic (Fourier transform infrared imaging (FTIRI)) analyses. Mineral content and distribution (BMDD) were determined by quantitative backscattered electron imaging (qBEI), and mineral maturity/crystallinity by FTIRI techniques. Micro-CT was used to describe the architectural properties. Mechanical performance of whole bone as well as of bone matrix material was tested by vertebral compression tests and by nano-indentation, respectively. The data of the present study indicate that β-APN treatment changed whole vertebra properties compared to non-treated rats, including collagen cross-links pattern, trabecular bone volume to tissue ratio and trabecular thickness, which were all decreased (p<0.05). Further, compression tests revealed a significant negative impact of β-APN treatment on maximal force to failure and energy to failure, while stiffness was not influenced. Bone mineral density distribution (BMDD) was not altered either. At the material level, β-APN treated rats exhibited increased Pyd/Divalent cross-link ratios in areas confined to a newly formed bone. Moreover, nano-indentation experiments showed that the E-modulus and hardness were reduced only in newly formed bone areas under the influence of β-APN, despite a similar mineral content. In conclusion the results emphasize the pivotal role of collagen cross-links in the determination of bone quality and mechanical integrity. However, in this rat animal model of lathyrism, the coupled alterations of tissue structural properties make it difficult to weigh the contribution of the anatomically confined material changes to the overall mechanical performance of whole bone. Interestingly, the collagen cross-link ratio in bone forming areas had the same profile as seen in actively bone forming trabecular surfaces in human iliac crest biopsies of osteoporotic patients.

Analysis of the contribution of dydrogesterone to bone turnover changes in postmenopausal women commencing hormone replacement therapy

Although gestagens have been reported to influence bone metabolism, whether these contribute to the beneficial effects of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on the skeleton of postmenopausal women is currently unclear. To address this question, we compared changes in bone turnover markers after commencing HRT in 26 postmenopausal women randomized to receive 8 weeks of treatment with 2 mg estradiol daily or 2 mg estradiol plus 10 mg dydrogesterone daily. Serum and second morning void urine samples were obtained at baseline (twice) and after 1, 2, 4, and 8 weeks. Serum estradiol was measured by RIA, urinary total deoxypyridinoline (DPD) excretion by high pressure liquid chromatography, and serum osteocalcin and C-terminal procollagen peptide by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The increase in serum estradiol after treatment with estradiol alone was slightly, but significantly, greater than that in the combination group (P = 0.04). Although estradiol suppressed urinary DPD excretion to a greater extent when given alone (P = 0.02), osteocalcin levels were significantly higher in this group than in women receiving combination therapy (P = 0.04). To assess the effect of dydrogesterone on the balance between formation and resorption in more detail, we subsequently compared the ratio between formation and resorption markers in the two treatment groups. We found that osteocalcin/DPD and C-terminal procollagen peptide/DPD ratios were significantly higher in women treated with estradiol alone (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.002, respectively), suggesting that dydrogesterone may reduce formation relative to resorption. These results suggest that gestagens may reduce estrogen's beneficial effects on the skeleton of postmenopausal women, as assessed over the first 8 weeks of replacement therapy.

Early asthma prophylaxis, natural history, skeletal development and economy (EASE): a pilot randomised controlled trial

OBJECTIVES

(1) To establish recruitment rates of newly presenting asthmatic children. (2) To establish acceptability of study protocols. (3) To pilot age-specific quality of life (QoL) assessment. (4) To assess short-term (6 months) outcomes of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) treatment. (5) To refine sample size calculations for a definitive study.

DESIGN

A randomised pragmatic longitudinal trial design was used, with no blinding or placebo, to examine early ICS introduction similar to its use in practice. Subjects were assessed at entry, 3 and 6 months.

SETTING

Subjects were recruited from six general practices. Children under 6 years were assessed at the Craig Research and Investigation Unit, Royal Aberdeen Children's Hospital, or their family home, and subjects 6 years and over were assessed at their general practice.

SUBJECTS

Children (aged 6 months-16 years) with symptoms suggestive of asthma/wheeze that had commenced no longer than 12 months before were identified retrospectively and prospectively from general practices. Subjects were also required to be naïve to prophylactic therapy with no other lung disease/concomitant illness.

INTERVENTIONS

Subjects were randomised to ss2-agonist (ss2-only group) or ss2-agonist and ICS (ICS group) for 6 months. Physicians could later prescribe ICS in controls if needed.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

(1) Pulmonary function. (2) Asthma symptom diary. (3) Symptomatic health status questionnaire. (4) Caregiver's and child's QoL. (5) Growth. (6) Bone mass. (7) Bone turnover. (8) Economic issues.

RESULTS

Of over 15,000 children yielded from general practice records, 11% had symptoms suggestive of asthma/wheeze, and two-thirds of these already used ICS. Of the remaining, 141 subjects met the criterion of early asthma, and 86 were randomised. Two-thirds of those randomised were < 6 years old, the males:females ratio was 2:1, and 67% had a family history of atopy. RESULTS - PHYSIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT: Pulmonary function did not significantly improve in the older children. Although tidal breathing measures in the pre-school children were significantly higher at 6 months in the ss2-only group, there was great variability. Incidence of wheeze and night-time cough reduced equally in both groups. Reduction of night-time symptom score and reliever use, and increase in symptom-free days were only significant in the ss2-only group. No significant differences were found in growth and bone mass between the two groups, but bone metabolism was significantly reduced at 6 months in the ICS group. RESULTS - PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT: The caregiver's QoL questionnaire was sensitive to child symptom changes over 3 months, but absolute impact of child symptoms on their QoL varied, whereas the child-centred questionnaire was not sensitive to change. RESULTS - ECONOMICS: There were no significant differences in medical consultation costs between the groups, but, as expected, prescription costs in the ICS group were higher over 6 months. Combined healthcare costs were significantly higher for patients assigned to ICS, but there were no significant differences in any effectiveness measures between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Most (96%) of the proposed sample was recruited, and the low drop-out rate (8%) demonstrated acceptability of the study protocol. Most children first presenting with symptoms suggestive of asthma were < 6 years old and represented a group biased towards mild to moderate asthma, or virally induced wheeze. The caregiver's QoL questionnaire was found to better reflect a child's symptom changes than a child-centred instrument. In the short term, no adverse effects were seen on growth, but ICS treatment significantly reduced bone metabolism. Most of the young children with asthma/wheeze improved over time with ss2-agonist treatment alone, and clinical benefits of early ICS intervention amongst these children were not detected; however, there was inadequate power in this pilot study to establish this. (AB

Gonadal steroids and bone metabolism in young castrated male rats

At 45 days of age, 40 male Wistar rats were castrated, then randomly divided into four groups, S.C. injected for 60 days after surgery either with 17beta-estradiol (E) 10 microg/kg BW/48 hours, progesterone (P) 140 microg/kg BW/48 hours, dihydrotestosterone (D) 2 microg/kg BW/48 hours, E + P + D same doses, or solvent alone (CX). Ten other rats were sham-operated (SH) and used as controls. Animals were put in balance to determine Ca and phosphorus (Pi) intestinal apparent absorption (IA Ca, IA Pi) and urinary pyridinium crosslinks excretion. Plasma was collected for measurement of intact-parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin (CT), insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)(2)D), Ca, and Pi. Orchidectomy induced marked seminal vesicles atrophy and increased plasma CT, PTH, and Ca concentrations. IA Ca was significantly higher in P rats, however, neither castration nor any other treatment had significant effects. Orchidectomy decreased femoral length, dry weight, and Ca content, whereas E or D given alone or together with P improved endochondral growth and enhanced femoral Ca content. Again, bone mineral density was lowered by orchidectomy and reestablished by both E and EPD, even above SH values, this effect being more important at the metaphyseal levels. Urinary pyridinium cross-links excretion and plasma osteocalcin concentrations were higher in the CX animals than in the controls. Although E and D given alone did reduce both biochemical turnover markers, they showed additive effect when given together (EPD). In conclusion, in the young castrated male rat, E was more efficient than D for preventing bone loss, the most important effect being induced by a combination of E+P+D.

Systems conceptualization and treatment of anger

Clinicians, researchers, and patients tend to view anger as attributable to immediate circumstances and current thoughts. In contrast, systems-oriented thinking approaches anger as a contextual and dynamic phenomenon. Personal dispositional systems of anger (cognitive, physiological, and behavioral) are embedded in an interdependent network of interpersonal and environmental systems. Anger coevolves with and is in equilibrium with these systems. The more adaptive and embedded it is within a system, the greater will be its inertia or resistance to change. The automaticity of anger further challenges its regulation, as does its transfer across domains. Other troublesome systems phenomena associated with anger and aggression are escalation and threshold effects. Anger arousal, as a deviation from homeostasis, is inhibited and counteracted by various negative feedback loops that are properties of internal, interpersonal, and environmental systems. Treatment augments anger-regulatory mechanisms. Interventions aimed at anger reduction should consider the systems in which anger is embedded and the adaptive functions anger serves within those systems. These and other systems concepts are explicated and are illustrated with material from two clinical cases.

Influence of risk factors on peripheral and cerebrovascular disease in men with coronary artery disease, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, and desirable low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. HIT Investigators. Department of Veterans Affairs HDL Intervention Trial

BACKGROUND

The Veterans Administration-HDL Intervention Trial is an ongoing, 20-center, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study aiming to assess the effect of gemfibrozil-improved low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality rates.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Eligible patients were men with low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and demonstrable coronary heart disease. A total of 2531 patients (average age 63.5 years) were randomly assigned in this study, with a mean high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level of 0.83 mmol/L (32 mg/dL) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol level of 2.87 mmol/L (111 mg/dL). Baseline data provided the opportunity to assess the interaction of several coronary heart disease risk factors and comorbid vascular diseases. Of these patients, 206 had diabetes mellitus (DM) alone, 1021 had hypertension (HTN) alone, 421 had both DM and HTN, and 883 had neither ("others"). Considering the influence of these risk factors on comorbidities independent of smoking status, patients with DM alone had a 2-fold increase in the prevalence of peripheral vascular disease and a 1.5-fold increase in congestive heart failure. Patients with HTN had a significant increase in the prevalence of cerebrovascular disease, stroke, and congestive heart failure. Patients with HTN and DM had a significant increase in all comorbidities. Smoking resulted in substantial increase of both peripheral vascular disease and cerebrovascular disease. Compared with nonsmoking patients with no DM or HTN, patients with DM and HTN and smoking had a 3-fold increase in the prevalence of peripheral vascular disease and a 3.5-fold increase in cerebrovascular disease (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that DM is a strong correlate of peripheral vascular disease, hypertension of cerebrovascular disease, and that there is a strong additive effect between DM, HTN, and smoking on both.

Practical success of an electronic patient record system in community care--a manifestation of the vision and discussion of the issues

This paper analyses the purpose, background, scope, and success to date of designing and implementing a comprehensive electronic patient record system for community care in the UK, in the context of the increasing policy focus upon community care. The project is situated in Plymouth in the UK, a major provider of community care. The paper indicates intended benefits of the system for patients, professionals, and health care organisations. The rationale behind the record content is explained, as is the record structure. Intended uses of the records form a further baseline for study, and the paper assesses the key success factors to achieving the goal of reliability, quality, and effective use of resources.

Bone mass and metabolism in women aged 45-55

OBJECTIVE

Changes in calcium homeostasis and bone mass around the climacteric are poorly understood. We examined relations between endocrine factors and indices of bone mass and metabolism in healthy women approaching the menopause.

DESIGN

Cross-section study.

PATIENTS

Sixty-eight spontaneously menstruating women aged 45-55.

MEASUREMENTS

Bone density measured at lumbar spine (LS) and femoral neck (FN) using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry and distal non-dominant forearm using peripheral quantitative computed tomography. We recorded menstrual history, physical activity and dietary calcium, and measured serum calcium, phosphate, alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin, vitamin D, fT3, T4, TSH, PTH, FSH and oestradiol (E2), and urinary pyridinoline (PYD) and deoxypyridinoline (DPD) excretion.

RESULTS

Using serum FSH level as a marker of ovarian function, 63 subjects could be classified into one of three groups: group A (serum FSH < 10 U/l, n = 29), group B (10-35 U/l, n = 27) and group C (> 35 U/l, n = 7). Bone density fell with declining ovarian function at the LS, FN and forearm trabecular (but not cortical) sites. Serum PTH was lower in group A vs B (mean (SD) 2.68 (0.97) vs 3.52 (1.17) pmol/l, P < 0.05), but similar to group C (2.90 (1.09) pmol/l, P = NS). Serum phosphate was elevated in group C compared to groups A and B (1.17 (0.15) vs 1.04 (0.11) and 1.05 (0.13) mmol/l, P < 0.05), and urinary PYD (61.1 (8.0) vs 50.4 (11.6) and 43.9 (8.1) mumol/mol creatinine) and DPD (15.9 (3.9) vs 12.0 (3.6) and 11.4 (3.6) mumol/mol creatinine) excretion were also increased. There were no significant differences in vitamin D metabolites or osteocalcin. Multivariate analysis suggested serum osteocalcin was positively related to physical activity and serum 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol levels. Serum free T3 was positively correlated with urinary DPD excretion, and inversely related to serum PTH. In all subjects, serum PTH was related to body weight (r = 0.38, P = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

Declining ovarian function before menopause is accompanied by reductions in bone mass and altered calcium metabolism. Free T3 may regulate bone resorption and indirectly modulate PTH release.

The effects of alcoholic beverages on urate metabolism in gout sufferers

The purine contents of commercial, low-alcohol and alcohol-free beers were determined. Four gout sufferers were studied under controlled conditions before and after ingestion of four different beverages containing alcohol, alcohol and purine, purine and neither alcohol nor purine. The results show a significant increase in purine excretion with a fluid load alone and impairment or reversal of this response with the other three beverages. These results are difficult to interpret on the basis of the alcohol and purine contents of the beverages alone. Isohumulones are present in all beers. Their effect on urate metabolism and excretion is unknown but needs further study as a possible explanation of these results. These results suggest that the three beverages other than a fluid load alone are unsuitable for gout sufferers.

Changes in bone mass and metabolism after surgery for primary hyperparathyroidism

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Bone mass is often reduced in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (pHPT) and is usually partially reversible after parathyroidectomy. However, site specific and overall skeletal benefits of surgery in mild asymptomatic pHPT remain uncertain.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.

PATIENTS

Fourteen patients (12 women and 2 men) with pHPT.

MEASUREMENTS

Baseline bone mass was assessed at the lumbar spine, left hip and whole body using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and at the left os calcis using broad-band ultrasound attenuation. Changes in bone mass, serum intact PTH and osteocalcin, and urinary pyridinium cross-link excretion were recorded in 10 patients followed for 6 months after surgery.

RESULTS

(1) Cross-sectional study: Baseline measurements at the lumbar spine and hip were inversely related to both the serum PTH concentration and the weight of the parathyroid gland removed at surgery. (2) Longitudinal study: Six months after adenectomy, bone mass had increased significantly at the femoral neck, greater trochanter, whole body and os calcis, but not at the lumbar spine or Ward's area. Serum PTH, osteocalcin and pyridinium cross-link excretion all fell significantly after surgery. The percentage increment in whole body bone mineral content at 6 months was proportional to the baseline PTH.

CONCLUSION

In primary hyperparathyroidism, preoperative reductions and post-operative gains in bone mass are proportional to the initial serum PTH concentration. Mild primary hyperparathyroidism probably does not cause appreciable bone loss at clinically relevant fracture sites such as the spine and hip, and in such cases the overall skeletal benefits of surgery are likely to be negligible.

Bone mineral density and metabolism in premenopausal women taking L-thyroxine replacement therapy

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Excess endogenous thyroxine causes bone loss, but the effects of exogenous thyroxine are disputed. We report on bone mass and metabolism in women taking L-thyroxine therapy.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.

PATIENTS

Cross-sectional study: 40 healthy premenopausal women with autoimmune thyroiditis taking either physiological (serum TSH usually normal, 0.35-3.3 mU/l) or suppressive (serum TSH usually < 0.35 mU/l) doses of L-thyroxine; patients were also compared with previously acquired age and weight matched premenopausal volunteers with no history of thyroid dysfunction. Longitudinal study: 28 patients were followed-up > or = 1 year later.

MEASUREMENTS

In all subjects bone mineral density (BMD) was measured at the anteroposterior lumbar spine and left hip (femoral neck, greater trochanter and Ward's area) using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and physical activity assessed using the Framingham physical activity index. Serum osteocalcin (OC), PTH and vitamin D, and urinary pyridinoline and deoxypyridinoline excretion were measured in patients.

RESULTS

Cross-sectional study: The patient groups were well matched for disease duration and physical activity although the suppressed group were slightly younger (mean 38.1 (SD 7.5) vs 43.3 (3.9) years, P < 0.05). BMD, serum OC, PTH and vitamin D, and urinary cross-link excretion did not differ significantly between the two groups. Multivariate analysis of the whole group suggested that BMD at the femoral neck and greater trochanter was related positively to weight and physical activity and negatively to thyroxine dose (microgram/kg/day) and patient age. At the lumbar spine BMD was reduced non-specifically in the presence of thyroid disease and treatment, but this effect appeared to decline with increasing duration of therapy. A similar analysis of the patient group suggested that urinary cross-link excretion correlated positively with thyroxine dose, and negatively with duration of treatment. Longitudinal study: Annualized changes in BMD were inversely related to thyroxine dose (microgram/kg/day) at all sites but achieved statistical significance only at the femoral neck and Ward's area.

CONCLUSION

We did not find any effect of persistent historical TSH suppression on current bone mass, and this might relate to the relative insensitivity of older TSH assays. However, the cross-sectional and longitudinal data suggest that high daily doses of thyroxine in relation to patient body weight might adversely affect bone mass, particularly at the hip. These findings support the contention that excess exogenous thyroxine might predominantly deplete skeletal sites, such as the femoral neck, rich in cortical bone.

Timer: a new objective measure of consultation content and its application to computer assisted consultations

As part of the research into the effect in the consultation of the use of a computer to prompt opportunistic preventive care a valid, objective, and practical measure of the consultation process was required. After a review of the alternative methods the Time Interval Medical Event Recorder (Timer) was developed, its reliability tested, and applied to 93 control consultations and 49 computer assisted consultations. Timer records, every five seconds, four consultation events: the problems being dealt with, the physical activity, the verbal activity, and the secondary tasks being attempted. Timer showed that control consultations lasted an average of 6 minutes 58 seconds. The doctors spent 35% of their time on administration, and patients and doctors were both conversational for just 33% of the consultation. Giving information was the most common verbal activity (48% of the duration of the consultation) with silence accounting for 21% of the time. When the computer was used the average consultation was longer, at 7 minutes and 46 seconds. The doctor's contribution to the consultation appeared to have increased. Patient centred speech fell from 36% in controls to 28% of the duration of the consultation when the computer was used, while doctor centred speech rose from 30% to 34.5%. Secondary tasks (exploring patient concepts, education, management sharing, and prevention) were attempted during 28% of the control consultations and 40% of the computer consultations. This was accounted for by the increase in prevention (p less than 0.001). Timer is a reliable and practical tool for researching the consultation, and though it has shown validity in detecting differences between consultations that use a computer and those that do not, further applications are required to establish its full value.

Topic analysis: an objective measure of the consultation and its application to computer assisted consultations

A simple method has been developed to classify the verbal interaction during medical consultations in terms of the relative proportions of medical and social content and the initiator of conversational topics discussed. The method has been applied to video tape recordings of three doctors' consultations with and without a computer present to classify and compare the items discussed. Actual computer use has been shown to have a medical effect on the consultations (p less than 0.05) and to increase the proportion of topics initiated by the doctor (p less than 0.001). Although this was largely accounted for by the massive increase in doctor initiated medical items resulting directly from computer use, there was evidence that, for two of the doctors, these topics were replacing some of the normal social and patient initiated medical exchanges.

Computer assisted screening: effect on the patient and his consultation

The initial impact of computer assisted preventive screening in general practice consultations has been monitored. The technology has not been found stressful by patients, and the power of the consultation to alleviate low arousal has been increased by computer use. No appreciable increase in the durations of consultation was detected, despite an average computer initiated input of two minutes eight seconds. The computer has successfully prompted preventive screening and health education with a sixfold increase in the number of potentially relevant procedures being mentioned. The actual information presented by the computer has been shown to be crucial, with the terminal's mere presence an ineffective reminder. The computer terminal was used in 65% of the consultations for which it was available, which, if sustained, represents an effective screening programme for attending patients.

What the patient wants from patient participation

In a general practice with an existing patient participation group, a survey of patients was undertaken to ascertain knowledge of and interest in the group. It was hoped that this might avoid the failure that had befallen other groups of this type. Analysis of the questionnaire provided useful information: there was interest in the group, with a potential attendance of almost three-quarters of the respondents. There was a clear lack of knowledge about the functions of the group, but the evidence was that if the desired activities were to be arranged and publicized they would be well attended.

Assessing the consultation: method for measuring changes in patient stress and arousal

A method has been developed to assess anxiety levels in terms of stress and arousal in patients before and after a consultation with a general practitioner. The MACL self report mood scale has been used in hospital outpatient studies. An adaptation of the scale using 26 items of low vocabulary was applied to general practice patients in a novel way to show appreciable reductions in stress and increases in arousal after consultations. Since arousal is related to efficiency of performance and stress has been inversely related to recall of information given in the consultation factors that affect stress and arousal in patients could usefully be identified.

Assessing the consultation: methods of observing trainees in general practice

We compared two different methods of observing trainees at work in general practice: the traditional one of a senior or training general practitioner sitting in during selected surgeries and the more modern video recording, with the patients' written consent. Patients who had experienced the presence of a second doctor during the consultation were less likely to show an increase in arousal after their consultations than those who had been recorded on video. Patients who refused consent to be recorded were more highly stressed than those who agreed and showed smaller decreases in stress after consultations. The presence of two doctors generated fewer reductions in stress after the consultation than video recording did, but this was a non-significant trend. The group that was recorded on video did not differ appreciably from a control group in changes in stress or arousal.

Computers in the surgery. The patient's view

A postal survey sent to 350 patients from two rural practices confirmed that an appreciable minority of patients (17%) were opposed to doctors using computers. The questionnaire distributed had been carefully designed to identify their opposition more specifically. Most of the general concern was accounted for by the 91 patients (31%) who feared that confidentiality of information would be reduced. The sensitive nature of medical information alerts patients to the possibility of diminished security of records and obliges practices considering acquiring a computer to ensure that these fears are not realised. Smaller proportions of patients were found to oppose computers on other grounds--namely, impersonality, economy, and general anxiety.

Dinitrochlorobenzene immunotherapy of recurrent squamous papilloma of the conjunctiva

Dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) immunotherapy of a recurrent conjunctival papilloma was employed successfully in a 24-year-old man. Previous attempts at electrocautery, surgical excision, and cryosurgery met without success. The tumor response to DNCB therapy resulted in total eradication of the tumor and represents a more successful modality than previous treatments. Poor patient compliance, variable patient immune mechanisms, and tumor size may influence the variable patient immune mechanisms, and tumor size may influence the fate and type of response to DNCb immunotherapy. DNCB therapy should be considered in the treatment of conjunctival papillomas refractory to conventional modes of therapy.

Regulation of body cholesterol pools. Influence of cholesterol input and excretion in an animal model

Biliary cholesterol excretion closely parallels lecithin excretion in the rat and may be increased by feeding an excess of choline and decreased by choline deficiency. To determine the relative influence of cholesterol input and excretion on whole body cholesterol metabolism, we have measured by compartmental analysis rates of cholesterol transport and pool sizes when both input and choline-mediated biliary excretion were increased and diminished. In choline-deficient animals with impaired excretion, plasma cholesterol was reduced. However, in deficient animals more cholesterol was transported into the slowly exchanging pool to increase pool size, and, when input was increased (by addition of cholesterol to diet), the slowly exchanging pool was even more markedly enlarged. In contrast, when excess choline was fed, plasma cholesterol was increased but excretion so exceeded transport into the slowly exchanging pool that pool size was actually reduced. Furthermore, in choline-fed animals with unimpaired excretion, addition of cholesterol to the diet to increase input did not result in pool expansion. Thus, in this model, cholesterol excretion and tissue deposition were reciprocally related, and, regardless of plasma cholesterol concentration and cholesterol input, stores were found to increase only when biliary excretion was impaired.