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Addo PW, Sagili SUKR, Bilodeau SE, Gladu-Gallant FA, MacKenzie DA, Bates J, McRae G, MacPherson S, Paris M, Raghavan V, Orsat V, Lefsrud M. Microwave- and Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Cannabinoids and Terpenes from Cannabis Using Response Surface Methodology. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27248803. [PMID: 36557949 PMCID: PMC9784742 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27248803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Limited studies have explored different extraction techniques that improve cannabis extraction with scale-up potential. Ultrasound-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction were evaluated to maximize the yield and concentration of cannabinoids and terpenes. A central composite rotatable design was used to optimize independent factors (sample-to-solvent ratio, extraction time, extraction temperature, and duty cycle). The optimal conditions for ultrasound- and microwave-assisted extraction were the sample-to-solvent ratios of 1:15 and 1:14.4, respectively, for 30 min at 60 °C. Ultrasound-assisted extraction yielded 14.4% and 14.2% more oil and terpenes, respectively, compared with microwave-assisted extracts. Ultrasound-assisted extraction increased cannabinoid concentration from 13.2−39.2%. Considering reference ground samples, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid increased from 17.9 (g 100 g dry matter−1) to 28.5 and 20 with extraction efficiencies of 159.2% and 111.4% for ultrasound-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction, respectively. Principal component analyses indicate that the first two principal components accounted for 96.6% of the total variance (PC1 = 93.2% and PC2 = 3.4%) for ultrasound-assisted extraction and 92.4% of the total variance (PC1 = 85.4% and PC2 = 7%) for microwave-assisted extraction. Sample-to-solvent ratios significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the secondary metabolite profiles and yields for ultrasound-assisted extracts, but not microwave-assisted extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Wiredu Addo
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Sai Uday Kumar Reddy Sagili
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | | | | | - Douglas A. MacKenzie
- National Research Council of Canada, Metrology, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Jennifer Bates
- National Research Council of Canada, Metrology, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Garnet McRae
- National Research Council of Canada, Metrology, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Sarah MacPherson
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Maxime Paris
- EXKA Inc., 7625 Route Arthur Sauvé, Mirabel, QC J7N 2R6, Canada
| | - Vijaya Raghavan
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Valérie Orsat
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Mark Lefsrud
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(514)-3987967
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Addo PW, Sagili SUKR, Bilodeau SE, Gladu-Gallant FA, MacKenzie DA, Bates J, McRae G, MacPherson S, Paris M, Raghavan V, Orsat V, Lefsrud M. Cold Ethanol Extraction of Cannabinoids and Terpenes from Cannabis Using Response Surface Methodology: Optimization and Comparative Study. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27248780. [PMID: 36557913 PMCID: PMC9786071 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27248780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Efficient cannabis biomass extraction can increase yield while reducing costs and minimizing waste. Cold ethanol extraction was evaluated to maximize yield and concentrations of cannabinoids and terpenes at different temperatures. Central composite rotatable design was used to optimize two independent factors: sample-to-solvent ratio (1:2.9 to 1:17.1) and extraction time (5.7 min-34.1 min). With response surface methodology, predicted optimal conditions at different extraction temperatures were a cannabis-to-ethanol ratio of 1:15 and a 10 min extraction time. With these conditions, yields (g 100 g dry matter-1) were 18.2, 19.7, and 18.5 for -20 °C, -40 °C and room temperature, respectively. Compared to the reference ground sample, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid changed from 17.9 (g 100 g dry matter-1) to 15, 17.5, and 18.3 with an extraction efficiency of 83.6%, 97.7%, 102.1% for -20 °C, -40 °C, and room temperature, respectively. Terpene content decreased by 54.1% and 32.2% for extraction at -20 °C and room temperature, respectively, compared to extraction at -40 °C. Principal component analysis showed that principal component 1 and principal component 2 account for 88% and 7.31% of total variance, respectively, although no significant differences in cold ethanol extraction at different temperatures were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Wiredu Addo
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Sai Uday Kumar Reddy Sagili
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | | | | | - Douglas A. MacKenzie
- National Research Council of Canada, Metrology, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Jennifer Bates
- National Research Council of Canada, Metrology, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Garnet McRae
- National Research Council of Canada, Metrology, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Sarah MacPherson
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Maxime Paris
- EXKA Inc., 7625 Route Arthur Sauvé, Mirabel, QC J7N 2R6, Canada
| | - Vijaya Raghavan
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Valérie Orsat
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Mark Lefsrud
- Bioresource Engineering Department, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(514)-3987967
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Eichhorn Bilodeau S, Wu BS, Rufyikiri AS, MacPherson S, Lefsrud M. An Update on Plant Photobiology and Implications for Cannabis Production. Front Plant Sci 2019; 10:296. [PMID: 31001288 PMCID: PMC6455078 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
This review presents recent developments in plant photobiology and lighting systems for horticultural crops, as well as potential applications for cannabis (Cannabis sativa and C. indica) plant production. The legal and commercial production of the cannabis plant is a relatively new, rapidly growing, and highly profitable industry in Europe and North America. However, more knowledge transfer from plant studies and horticultural communities to commercial cannabis plant growers is needed. Plant photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis are influenced by light wavelength, intensity, and photoperiod via plant photoreceptors that sense light and control plant growth. Further, light properties play a critical role in plant vegetative growth and reproductive (flowering) developmental stages, as well as in biomass, secondary metabolite synthesis, and accumulation. Advantages and disadvantages of widespread greenhouse lighting systems that use high pressure sodium lamps or light emitting diode (LED) lighting are known. Some artificial plant lighting practices will require improvements for cannabis production. By manipulating LED light spectra and stimulating specific plant photoreceptors, it may be possible to minimize operation costs while maximizing cannabis biomass and cannabinoid yield, including tetrahydrocannabinol (or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol) and cannabidiol for medicinal and recreational purposes. The basics of plant photobiology (photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis) and electrical lighting systems are discussed, with an emphasis on how the light spectrum and lighting strategies could influence cannabis production and secondary compound accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Mark Lefsrud
- Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Backer R, Schwinghamer T, Rosenbaum P, McCarty V, Eichhorn Bilodeau S, Lyu D, Ahmed MB, Robinson G, Lefsrud M, Wilkins O, Smith DL. Closing the Yield Gap for Cannabis: A Meta-Analysis of Factors Determining Cannabis Yield. Front Plant Sci 2019; 10:495. [PMID: 31068957 PMCID: PMC6491815 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Until recently, the commercial production of Cannabis sativa was restricted to varieties that yielded high-quality fiber while producing low levels of the psychoactive cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In the last few years, a number of jurisdictions have legalized the production of medical and/or recreational cannabis with higher levels of THC, and other jurisdictions seem poised to follow suit. Consequently, demand for industrial-scale production of high yield cannabis with consistent cannabinoid profiles is expected to increase. In this paper we highlight that currently, projected annual production of cannabis is based largely on facility size, not yield per square meter. This meta-analysis of cannabis yields reported in scientific literature aimed to identify the main factors contributing to cannabis yield per plant, per square meter, and per W of lighting electricity. In line with previous research we found that variety, plant density, light intensity and fertilization influence cannabis yield and cannabinoid content; we also identified pot size, light type and duration of the flowering period as predictors of yield and THC accumulation. We provide insight into the critical role of light intensity, quality, and photoperiod in determining cannabis yields, with particular focus on the potential for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to improve growth and reduce energy requirements. We propose that the vast amount of genomics data currently available for cannabis can be used to better understand the effect of genotype on yield. Finally, we describe diversification that is likely to emerge in cannabis growing systems and examine the potential role of plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for growth promotion, regulation of cannabinoid biosynthesis, and biocontrol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Backer
- Crop Physiology Laboratory, Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
- *Correspondence: Rachel Backer
| | - Timothy Schwinghamer
- Crop Physiology Laboratory, Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Phillip Rosenbaum
- Plant Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Vincent McCarty
- Plant Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Samuel Eichhorn Bilodeau
- Biomass Production Laboratory, Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Dongmei Lyu
- Crop Physiology Laboratory, Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Md Bulbul Ahmed
- Plant Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | | | - Mark Lefsrud
- Biomass Production Laboratory, Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Olivia Wilkins
- Plant Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Donald L. Smith
- Crop Physiology Laboratory, Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
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