In situ setup for screening of drug permeation by NMR spectroscopy

There are various commercially available setups for studying drug permeation, which differ in cost and manual labor. We explore an artificial membrane in an NMR tube to assess drug permeation with automated measurements. NMR-based concentrations were validated with HPLC and compared to a conventional setup. Setup-specific challenges and workarounds as well as future setup-designs for this and other applications are discussed.

Bile Is a Selective Elevator for Mucosal Mechanics and Transport

Mucus mechanically protects the intestinal epithelium and impacts the absorption of drugs, with a largely unknown role for bile. We explored the impacts of bile on mucosal biomechanics and drug transport within mucus. Bile diffused with square-root-of-time kinetics and interplayed with mucus, leading to transient stiffening captured in Brillouin images and a concentration-dependent change from subdiffusive to Brownian-like diffusion kinetics within the mucus demonstrated by differential dynamic microscopy. Bile-interacting drugs, Fluphenazine and Perphenazine, diffused faster through mucus in the presence of bile, while Metoprolol, a drug with no bile interaction, displayed consistent diffusion. Our findings were corroborated by rat studies, where co-dosing of a bile acid sequestrant substantially reduced the bioavailability of Perphenazine but not Metoprolol. We clustered over 50 drugs based on their interactions with bile and mucin. Drugs that interacted with bile also interacted with mucin but not vice versa. This study detailed the dynamics of mucus biomechanics under bile exposure and linked the ability of a drug to interact with bile to its abbility to interact with mucus.

Harnessing Bile for Drug Absorption through Rational Excipient Selection

Bile solubilization and apparent solubility at resorption sites critically affect the bioavailability of orally administered and poorly water-soluble drugs. Therefore, identification of drug-bile interaction may critically determine the overall formulation success. For the case of the drug candidate naporafenib, drug in solution at phase separation onset significantly improved with polyethylene glycol-40 hydrogenated castor oil (RH40) and amino methacrylate copolymer (Eudragit E) but not with hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) in both phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and PBS supplemented with bile components. Naporafenib interacted with bile as determined by 1H and 2D 1H-1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and so did Eudragit E and RH40 but not HPC. Flux across artificial membranes was reduced in the presence of Eudragit E. RH40 reduced the naporafenib supersaturation duration. HPC on the other side stabilized naporafenib's supersaturation and did not substantially impact flux. These insights on bile interaction correlated with pharmacokinetics (PK) in beagle dogs. HPC preserved naporafenib bile solubilization in contrast to Eudragit E and RH40, resulting in favorable PK.

Solid microemulsion preconcentrates on pH responsive metal-organic framework for tableting

Poorly water-soluble drugs are frequently formulated with lipid-based formulations including microemulsions and their preconcentrates. We detailed the solidification of drug-loaded microemulsion preconcentrates with the acid-sensitive metal-organic framework ZIF-8 by X-ray powder diffraction and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Adsorption and desorption dynamics were analyzed by fluorescence measurement, high-performance liquid chromatography, dynamic light scattering and ¹H-DOSY experiments using the model compounds Nile Red, Vitamin K₁, and Lumefantrine. Preconcentrates and drugs were successfully loaded onto ZIF-8 while preserving its crystal structure. The solid powder was pressable to tablets or 3D-printed into oral dosage forms. At low pH, colloidal solutions readily formed, solubilizing the poorly water-soluble compounds. The use of stimuli-responsive metal organic frameworks as carriers for the oral delivery of lipid-based formulations points towards solid dosage forms readily forming colloidal microemulsions.

Leveraging Dissolution by Autoinjector Designs

Chemical warfare or terrorism attacks with organophosphates may place intoxicated subjects under immediate life-threatening and psychologically demanding conditions. Antidotes, such as the oxime HI-6, which must be formulated as a powder for reconstitution reflecting the molecule's light sensitivity and instability in aqueous solutions, dramatically improve recovery-but only if used soon after exposure. Muscle tremors, anxiety, and loss of consciousness after exposure jeopardize proper administration, translating into demanding specifications for the dissolution of HI-6. Reflecting the patients' catastrophic situation and anticipated desire to react immediately to chemical weapon exposure, the dissolution should be completed within ten seconds. We are developing multi-dose and single-dose autoinjectors to reliably meet these dissolution requirements. The temporal and spatial course of dissolution within the various autoinjector designs was profiled colorimetrically. Based on these colorimetric insights with model dyes, we developed experimental setups integrating online conductometry to push experiments toward the relevant molecule, HI-6. The resulting blueprints for autoinjector designs integrated small-scale rotor systems, boosting dissolution across a wide range of viscosities, and meeting the required dissolution specifications driven by the use of these drug products in extreme situations.

Bile and excipient interactions directing drug pharmacokinetics in rats

Bile solubilization plays a major role in the absorption of poorly water-soluble drugs. Excipients used in oral drug formulations impact bile-colloidal properties and their molecular interactions. Polymer-induced changes of bile colloids, e.g., by Eudragit E, reduced the flux of the bile interacting drug Perphenazine whereas bile non-interacting Metoprolol was not impacted. This study corroborates these in vitro findings in rats. Eudragit E significantly reduced systemic availability of Perphenazine but not Metoprolol compared to the oral administrations without polymer. This study confirms the necessity to carefully select polymers for bile interacting drugs whereas non-bile interacting drugs are more robust in terms of excipient choice for formulation. The perspective of bile interaction may introduce interesting biopharmaceutical leverage for better performing oral formulations of tomorrow.

Predicting Bile and Lipid Interaction for Drug Substances

Predicting biopharmaceutical characteristics and food effects for drug substances may substantially leverage rational formulation outcomes. We established a bile and lipid interaction prediction model for new drug substances and further explored the model for the prediction of bile-related food effects. One hundred and forty-one drugs were categorized as bile and/or lipid interacting and noninteracting drugs using ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Quantitative structure-property relationship modeling with molecular descriptors was applied to predict a drug's interaction with bile and/or lipids. Bile interaction, for example, was indicated by two descriptors characterizing polarity and lipophilicity with a high balanced accuracy of 0.8. Furthermore, the predicted bile interaction correlated with a positive food effect. Reliable prediction of drug substance interaction with lipids required four molecular descriptors with a balanced accuracy of 0.7. These described a drug's shape, lipophilicity, aromaticity, and hydrogen bond acceptor capability. In conclusion, reliable models might be found through drug libraries characterized for bile interaction by NMR. Furthermore, there is potential for predicting bile-related positive food effects.

Concentration and composition dependent aggregation of Pluronic- and Poly-(2-oxazolin)-Efavirenz formulations in biorelevant media

Many drugs and drug candidates are poorly water-soluble. Intestinal fluids play an important role in their solubilization. However, the interactions of intestinal fluids with polymer excipients, drugs and their formulations are not fully understood. Here, diffusion ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) and nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY), complemented by cryo-TEM were employed to address this. Efavirenz (EFV) as model drug, the triblock copolymers Pluronic® F-127 (PF127) and poly(2-oxazoline) based pMeOx-b-pPrOzi-b-pMeOx (pOx/pOzi) and their respective formulations were studied in simulated fed-state intestinal fluid (FeSSIF). For the individual polymers, the bile interfering nature of PF127 was confirmed and pure pOx/pOzi was newly classified as non-interfering. A different and more complex behaviour was however observed if EFV was involved. PF127/EFV formulations in FeSSIF showed concentration dependent aggregation with separate colloids at low formulation concentrations, a merging of individual particles at the solubility limit of EFV in FeSSIF and joint aggregates above this concentration. In the case of pOx/pOzi/EFV formulations, coincident diffusion coefficients for pOx/pOzi, lipids and EFV indicate joint aggregates across the studied concentration range. This demonstrates that separate evaluation of polymers and drugs in biorelevant media is not sufficient and their mixtures need to be studied to learn about concentration and composition dependent behaviour.

Drug-Induced Dynamics of Bile Colloids

Bile colloids containing taurocholate and lecithin are essential for the solubilization of hydrophobic molecules including poorly water-soluble drugs such as Perphenazine. We detail the impact of Perphenazine concentrations on taurocholate/lecithin colloids using analytical ultracentrifugation, dynamic light scattering, small-angle neutron scattering, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, and isothermal titration calorimetry. Perphenazine impacted colloidal molecular arrangement, structure, and binding thermodynamics in a concentration-dependent manner. At low concentration, Perphenazine was integrated into stable and large taurocholate/lecithin colloids and close to lecithin. Integration of Perphenazine into these colloids was exothermic. At higher Perphenazine concentration, the taurocholate/lecithin colloids had an approximately 5-fold reduction in apparent hydrodynamic size, heat release was less exothermic upon drug integration into the colloids, and Perphenazine interacted with both lecithin and taurocholate. In addition, Perphenazine induced a morphological transition from vesicles to wormlike micelles as indicated by neutron scattering. Despite these surprising colloidal dynamics, these natural colloids successfully ensured stable relative amounts of free Perphenazine throughout the entire drug concentration range tested here. Future studies are required to further detail these findings both on a molecular structural basis and in terms of in vivo relevance.

Leveraging bile solubilization of poorly water-soluble drugs by rational polymer selection

Poorly water-soluble drugs frequently solubilize into bile colloids and this natural mechanism is key for efficient bioavailability. We tested the impact of pharmaceutical polymers on this solubilization interplay using proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, and by assessing the flux across model membranes. Eudragit E, Soluplus, and a therapeutically used model polymer, Colesevelam, impacted the bile-colloidal geometry and molecular interaction. These polymer-induced changes reduced the flux of poorly water-soluble and bile interacting drugs (Perphenazine, Imatinib) but did not impact the flux of bile non-interacting Metoprolol. Non-bile interacting polymers (Kollidon VA 64, HPMC-AS) neither impacted the flux of colloid-interacting nor colloid-non-interacting drugs. These insights into the drug substance/polymer/bile colloid interplay potentially point towards a practical optimization parameter steering formulations to efficient bile-solubilization by rational polymer selection.

Bioinspired Ion Pairs Transforming Papaverine into a Protic Ionic Liquid and Salts

Microbial, mammalian, and plant cells produce and contain secondary metabolites, which typically are soluble in water to prevent cell damage by crystallization. The formation of ion pairs, for example, with carboxylic acids or mineral acids, is a natural blueprint to maintain basic metabolites in solution. Here, we aim at showing whether the mostly large carboxylates form soluble protic ionic liquids (PILs) with the basic natural product papaverine resulting in enhanced aqueous solubility. The obtained PILs were characterized by 1H-15N HMBC nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and in the solid state using X-ray powder diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and dissolution measurements. Furthermore, their supramolecular pattern in aqueous solution was studied by means of potentiometric and photometrical solubility, NMR aggregation assay, dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, and viscosity measurements. Thereby, we identified the naturally occurring carboxylic acids, citric acid, malic acid, and tartaric acid, as being appropriate counterions for papaverine and which will facilitate the formation of PILs with their beneficial characteristics, like the improved dissolution rate and enhanced apparent solubility.