Changes in farmer animal health and biosecurity knowledge, attitudes and practices: Insights from Cambodia and Laos

Livestock agriculture in Cambodia and Laos is severely affected by endemic and exotic transboundary animal diseases, impacting household livelihoods and food and nutritional security. Collaborative animal health and biosecurity projects were conducted in each country between 2015 and 2019 aimed at increasing smallholder livestock production through mainly knowledge-based interventions in large ruminant disease prevention, nutrition, reproduction and marketing access. This study's objectives were to identify baseline animal health and biosecurity knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of farmers, and temporal changes in key attitudes and practices associated with improved knowledge. Data for each country were analysed separately, and a formal between-country comparison was avoided due to major implementation and management differences. Binomial logistic regression without random terms compared the overall knowledge scores between 2015 and 2018 in each country, and binomial logistic regression with random terms was used to investigate possible associations between animal health and biosecurity knowledge scores and attitudes and practices. In Cambodia, the average animal health and biosecurity knowledge score increased from 4.8 (±2.2)/17 in 2015 to 13.0 (±2.8)/17 in 2018 (p < .0001). In Laos, the average scores improved from 7.2 (±2.5)/12 in 2015 to 7.9 (±2.9)/12 in 2018 (p = .0003). Clinical signs of foot-and-mouth disease were accurately reported by 100% of Cambodian and 88% of Lao project farmers, and overall, attitudes and practices improved in both countries over the study period. The belief that vaccination can improve livestock value was associated with increasing knowledge in both countries (Cambodia: OR 1.45, 95% CI 1.24-1.68, p < .0001; Laos: OR 1.43, 95% CI 1.16-1.75, p = .0006) as was the use of the services of village para-veterinarians if they had better training (Cambodia: OR 1.76, 95% CI 1.20-2.58, p = .004; Laos: OR 2.02, 95% CI 1.19-3.41, p = .009). However, the source of livestock information (District veterinary officials) was the only practice associated with knowledge in both Cambodia and Laos. The influence of resource scarcity on farmer decision making and knowledge measures was considered of particular relevance to the findings.

Provision of urea–molasses blocks to improve smallholder cattle weight gain during the late dry season in tropical developing countries: studies from Lao PDR

Context Large-ruminant production in developing countries is inefficient with low growth rates and declining weights, particularly in the dry season. Aims The impact of ad libitum supplementation of cattle with high-quality molasses blocks (20 kg) containing either 8% urea (UMB) or nil urea (MB), was examined. Methods Field trials on smallholder farms compared weight changes and average daily gains (ADG = g/day) data of young calves &lt;8 months of age (n = 25); growing calves 8–24 months (n = 35) and lactating cows (n = 46), of the indigenous breed when accessing either UMB or MB, with data being collected at Weeks 1, 4, 8 and 12. A pen study was also conducted at a research station involving mature, lactating crossbred cows (n = 37). Surveys of farming families experiencing use of the blocks was conducted (n = 20). Key results On smallholder farms, animals accessing UMBs were heavier than those accessing MBs at every collection day and in young calves these differences were statistically significant (P &lt; 0.05). ADGs were higher in cattle accessing UMB than in those accessing MBs. Young calves had the highest ADG (251–265 g/day), followed by growing calves (198–237 g/day) and lactating cows (187–190 g/day), although differences in ADG between UMB and MB cohorts were not considered significant (young calves P = 0.562; growing calves P = 0.509; and lactating cows P = 0.993). Results from the pen study identified that ADGs were not significantly different (P = 0.933) between crossbred cows accessing MBs (236 g/day) and cows accessing UMBs (229 g/day). Surveys of farmers using blocks confirmed that their animals were calmer and healthier, and had better coat condition with minimal external parasites; these farmers wished to purchase the blocks and were willing to pay a mean up to US$6.5 ± 2.3 per block. Conclusions Provision of UMBs and MBs in Laos in the late dry season improved cattle growth rates, which is consistent with previous studies and far superior to the base-line data from Laos demonstrating declining ADGs. Farmers considered that the blocks contributed greatly to herd management and improved sale-ability of their cattle. Implications Provision of molasses blocks on low-input smallholder farms in developing countries significantly improves production efficiency, offering an ‘entry point’ intervention while forages are becoming established.

Serological Evidence of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Infection in Goats in Lao PDR

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) causes significant economic loss in Lao PDR (Laos) and perpetuates the cycle of smallholder poverty mainly through large ruminant productivity losses, increased costs of production and potential limitations to market access for trade in livestock and their products. Goats are emerging as an important livestock species in Laos, and there is an increasing trend in the number of households with goats, often farmed alongside cattle and buffalo. Although an FMD susceptible species, very little is known about the role of goats in the epidemiology of the disease in Laos. A cross-sectional seroprevalence study was conducted by detecting antibodies to the non-structural proteins (NSP), an indication of a previous infection, and serotype-specific structural proteins (SP) that could be due to vaccination or infection. The study commenced in late 2017 and sera were collected from 591 goats in 26 villages of northern, central and southern Laos. For a subset of sera samples, paired oral swab samples were also collected by a simple random sampling method to detect the prevalence of FMD virus infection at the time of collection. The NSP seroprevalence in the provinces of Borkeo and Xayabouli in the north was 42 and 8%, respectively and in Khammoune in the center, it was 20%. In the other five provinces, Luang Namtha and Luang Prabang (northern Laos), Xieng Khouang and Savannaket (central Laos), and Champasak (southern Laos), the seroprevalence was close to zero. The multivariable analysis indicated that age (p < 0.001) was positively associated with animal-level seropositivity and males were less likely to be seropositive than females (OR: 0.29; 95%CI: 0.10–0.83; p = 0.017). Continued sero-surveillance for FMD in goats is recommended to improve our understanding of their role in the epidemiology of FMD in the region and to extend support to FMD control decisions, particularly regarding vaccination.

Can fenbendazole-medicated molasses blocks control Toxocara vitulorum in smallholder cattle and buffalo calves in developing countries? Studies from upland Lao PDR

Context Anthelmintic treatments are not widely adopted by smallholder farmers in Laos (Lao People’s Democratic Republic) to treat bovid Toxocara vitulorum, resulting in high calf morbidity and mortality. Aims Field trials were conducted to provide baseline efficacy data on an alternative, easy-to-use treatment by provision of fenbendazole-medicated molasses blocks (FMB) in situ. Methods Participating villages were randomly allocated to the following treatments: (1) conventional orally administered pyrantel, (2) access to FMB, (3) access to non-medicated molasses blocks (MB), and (4) no blocks (control). Faecal eggs per gram (EPG) and weight were monitored in cattle (n = 171) and buffalo calves (n = 44) under field conditions for 48–56 days. Key results In 2016, the MB treatment was associated with the fastest reduction in predicted average EPG at 2% per day, while FMB and pyrantel had an equivalent reduction of 1% per day, relative to the control (P = 0.062). Predicted average weight also differed significantly among treatments, with pyrantel and MB having the greatest average daily gain at 230 g and FMB at 200 g, which was higher than for control calves at 170 g (P = 0.002). In buffalo calves, treatment was not significantly associated with EPG or weight. The 2018 trial corroborated that FMB and MB treatments were associated with increased EPG reductions in cattle at 3% per day, relative to control calves (P = 0.007). Again, the MB treatment had the greatest predicted average daily gain at 200 g, compared with FMB calves at 160 g and control calves at 150 g (P = 0.005). Conclusions The field trials provided baseline evidence that FMB and MB have potential applications in reducing environmental contamination of T. vitulorum eggs and may improve calf growth in low-input systems. However, further testing ex situ is required to control for variability in calf weight and T. vitulorum burdens, so as to optimise anthelmintic doses, assess the addition of urea to the block formula and assess product marketability. Implications If successful, medicated nutrient blocks may be a simple method to reduce calf mortality and morbidity, enhancing the reproductive efficiency of large ruminant production in smallholder farms in developing countries.

Risk factors for Neospora caninum, bovine viral diarrhoea virus, and Leptospira interrogans serovar Hardjo infection in smallholder cattle and buffalo in Lao PDR

Smallholder large ruminant production in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Laos) is characterised by low reproductive efficiency. To determine if common abortifacient bovid infectious diseases are involved, a serological investigation was conducted. Sera was collected from stored and fresh cattle (n = 390) and buffalo (n = 130) samples from 2016-18 from, and then examined for associations in a retrospective risk factor study of 71 herds. The sera were assayed for antibodies to Neospora caninum, bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), Leptospira interrogans serovar Hardjo and Brucella abortus using commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. These pathogens were detected in buffalo samples at 78.5% (95% CI 71.4-85.6), 0%, 2.3% (95% CI 0-4.9) and 0%, respectively, and in cattle at 4.4% (95% CI 2.4-6.4), 7.7% (95% CI 3.1-12.3), 12.8% (95% CI 9.5-16.1) and 0.26% (95% CI 0-0.8), respectively. Exposure of buffalo to N. caninum was positively associated with buffalo age, with a predicted seropositivity at birth of 52.8%, increasing to 97.2% by 12 years of age (p = 0.037). Exposure of cattle to L. interrogans serovar Hardjo was more prevalent in females compared to males, was associated with higher titres of BVDV, and was more prevalent in the wet season compared to the dry season. Exposure of cattle to BVDV was more prevalent in males compared to females, the wet and dry seasons were comparable, and was associated with rising antibody titres against N. caninum and L. interrogans serovar Hardjo. The risk factor survey identified that the probability of herds being N. caninum positive increased with farmer age, if farmers believed there were rodents on farm, and if farmers weren't aware that canids or rodents could contaminate bovid feed on their farm. The probability of a herd being positive to L. interrogans serovar Hardjo increased on farms where multiple cows shared the same bull, where farmers had lower husbandry knowledge, and on farms that used water troughs. The probability of a herd being BVDV seropositive increased with increasing herd size and increasing titres to N. caninum. The benchmarking of bovid exposure to emerging abortifacient pathogens and identification of their risk factors potentially informs disease prevention strategies, supporting efforts to establish a biosecure beef supply for enhanced smallholder livestock productivity, public health and food security in Laos and surrounding countries.

Financial impact of an outbreak of clinically diagnosed blackleg - a case study from Lao PDR

Blackleg (BL) is an acute to peracute highly fatal infectious disease of mainly large ruminants characterised by lesions of myonecrosis caused by Clostridium chauvoei, usually presenting as a sudden onset of sporadic mortalities. In Southeast Asia, ‘BL’ is considered a cause of occasional outbreaks of a subacute febrile illness, although there are few published reports available. Investigation of a major outbreak of clinically diagnosed BL occurring in large ruminants (cattle and buffalo) in three neighbouring villages in central Laos in mid‐2017, was conducted to determine the financial impacts of BL on smallholder livelihoods. Owners of BL‐infected large ruminants in the three affected villages were interviewed (n = 27) and financial losses including losses due to mortality, morbidity and costs of treatments, were determined. The reports of clinical signs of subcutaneous swelling with palpable crepitus in febrile animals were considered consistent with a diagnosis of BL. The outbreak occurred in 47 of a total 449 households with large ruminants across the three villages, affecting 147 of a total population of 3505 ‘at risk’ large ruminants with 71 deaths reported. At the household level, the mean morbidity and mortality rates were 5 ± 4(95% CI: 3–6) and 3 ± 2(95% CI: 1–4) heads per household, respectively. The estimated financial losses due to BL per affected household was USD 822 ± 692(95% CI: 518–1125), being 122% of their annual household income from large ruminant sales. The comparison between the estimated losses due to BL per village and cost of annual BL vaccination programmes, indicated a potential economic benefit of USD3.09 and USD12.37 for every dollar invested in the vaccination programme, if BL outbreaks occur every 20 and 5 years, respectively. This study indicates that clinically diagnosed BL can cause significant losses to smallholder households, and requires Lao animal health authorities to consider vaccination interventions to prevent losses from re‐emergence of BL in the known endemically affected areas.

Do triclabendazole medicated molasses blocks have a role in control of Fasciola gigantica in smallholder cattle production in Lao PDR?

Smallholder cattle production in many developing tropical countries including Laos is compromised by widespread endoparasitism, with limited farmer knowledge of parasites and facilities for administration of therapeutics. We report a pilot study examining the potential for triclabendazole provided in medicated molasses blocks offered to control Fasciola gigantica in smallholder cattle production. This study involved 241 cattle allocated into three groups: (1) triclabendazole (as Fasinex®, Novartis Animal Health Australia, Pty Ltd) medicated molasses blocks (MMB) with each tonne of MMB containing 0.5 kg triclabendazole; (2) unmedicated molasses blocks; and (3) a Control group. Data and faecal samples were obtained at Weeks 1, 4, 8 and 12 for faecal egg counts (FEC) determination. Reductions in FEC in the MMB group of 90.48% and a mean FEC of 4 ± 17 eggs per gram of faeces at 12 weeks post-treatment was observed, with liveweight increasing from 174.60 (±3.35) kg to 191.50 (±3.69) kg in Weeks 1 and 12, respectively (P = 001) and an average daily weight gain of 201 g/day. Reduction in FEC in the unmedicated molasses blocks group was also observed, by 28.78% and 18.96%, with liveweight increasing from 179.50 (±3.35) kg to 189.90 (±6.05) kg in Weeks 1 and 12 respectively (P = 0.3), with an average daily gain of 124 g/day. This study suggests that productivity was enhanced when triclabendazole was added to the blocks, delivering parasite suppression or potentially therapeutic doses on ad libitum feeding of the MMB. Although further work is required to establish the therapeutic potential of MMB, the use of MMB may offer a parasite management and nutritional supplementation strategy for smallholder farmers, particularly in Laos and other countries where unmanaged Fasciola spp. infestations reduce ruminant productivity and facilities for animal restraint to enable delivery of oral anthelmintics, are largely non-existent.

Investigation of infectious reproductive pathogens of large ruminants: Are neosporosis, brucellosis, leptospirosis and BVDV of relevance in Lao PDR?

N. caninum, bovine viral diarrhoea virus, Brucella abortus and Leptospira interrogans serovar Hardjo are globally significant reproductive pathogens that cause abortion and reproductive loss in large ruminants. Prevalence information is lacking in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Laos) despite the poor reproductive performance of cattle and buffalo. Serological examination of frozen cattle (n=90) and buffalo (n=61) sera by commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays provided the first reported screening of some of these pathogens in Laos. Seroprevalence differed amongst these large ruminant species, with N. caninum, BVDV and L. interrogans serovar Hardjo antibodies found in 68.9% (95% CI±11.6), 4.9% (95% CI±5.4) and 3.3% (95% CI±4.5) of buffalo sera, respectively, and in 7.8% (95% CI±5.5), 10.0% (95% CI±6.2) and 22.2% (95% CI±8.6) of cattle sera, respectively. Buffalo sera had a significantly higher seroprevalence of N. caninum compared to cattle (p<0.001) and cattle sera had a significantly higher seroprevalence of L. interrogans serovar Hardjo compared to buffalo (p=0.003). Variability was also observed across provinces for N. caninum in buffalo (p=0.007) and for L. interrogans serovar Hardjo in cattle (p=0.071), suggesting provincial risk factors conducive to pathogen transmission. BVDV and N. caninum seropositivity were negatively associated in buffalo (p=0.018) and cattle (p=0.003). In buffalo, L. interrogans serovar Hardjo and BVDV seropositivity were associated (p=0.035, p=0.039). The identification of antibodies against three major abortifacient pathogens in Laos prompts further research to determine if infection is associated with low reproductive efficiency and the risk factors for infection. This is needed for the development of evidence based prevention strategies for improved large ruminant reproductive management among smallholders in Laos.

Fasciola gigantica infection in large ruminants in northern Laos: smallholder knowledge and practices

High prevalence of Fasciola spp. infection in smallholder large ruminant farming systems has been confirmed in many regions of South-East Asia, yet information on trematode knowledge and any control practices of large ruminant farmers is lacking. We surveyed smallholder farmers (n = 326) in northern Laos on knowledge of liver fluke and its management in their large ruminants, identifying 93.1% of farmers had no knowledge and 6.9% minimal knowledge of the parasite and impacts on large ruminant production. The survey further confirmed anecdotal reports that control or prevention measures were lacking, with none of the surveyed producers using effective anthelminthic treatments or grazing strategies to control Fasciola spp. This was despite 20.6% of farmers having reported observing leaf-shaped parasites in the liver of their cattle or buffalo when slaughtered in the past. With increasing demand for red meat in the region, subsistence smallholder farmers are able to supply this market and increase their income. Athough the production impact of fascioliasis in large ruminants in these farming systems still needs to be quantified, farmer knowledge and control of fascioliasis in this region is likely to increase livestock productivity and improve rural livelihoods. This would help to address regional rural poverty and food insecurity, but requires improved knowledge to address the identified knowledge and practice gaps on presence, impact and control of fasciolosis. The majority (95.4%) of surveyed farmers indicated a desire to learn more about fascioliasis in large ruminants, suggesting that extension methods used in the past need adapting to result in more effective knowledge transfer and changed practices in future.

Smallholder large ruminant health and production in Lao PDR: challenges and opportunities for improving domestic and regional beef supply

Indigenous yellow cattle (Bos indicus) and Asiatic swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) are important livestock species in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Laos). Data from 2011 estimated there was a national herd of 1 586 200 cattle and 774 200 buffalo, with average numbers of 5.3 cattle and 3.4 buffalo per farm household, indicating that the majority of farm households with large ruminants were smallholders, retaining large ruminants as a storage of wealth, for sale as meat, and as a source of manure fertiliser. Increasing demand for red meat in both domestic and neighbouring markets, driven by rapidly growing economies and urbanisation, offers opportunities for Lao smallholders to gain more income from their livestock. However, improving cattle and buffalo production and a more sustainable supply of safe beef and buffalo meat, requires that numerous production, health and welfare constraints be addressed, including: prevalence of important infectious and parasitic diseases, nutritional deficits particularly in the dry season, undeveloped trading, meat processing and marketing systems, limited veterinary and extension service capacity, adverse impacts from climate change and cultural practices specific to buffalo husbandry, plus policy developments that recognise and adapt to changes in land use. Improvements in large ruminant health, processing and marketing are of particular importance as these will enable poor smallholder farmers to participate in emerging beef markets and expand other agricultural enterprises, improving rural livelihoods, with potential reductions in rural poverty and increased food security. This paper identifies the strategic interventions that may increase the supply of cattle and buffalo and improve rural livelihoods in Laos and the Greater Mekong Subregion.

Challenges for beef production in smallholder communities with low reproductive management skills: a case study from Northern Lao PDR

Improved large ruminant productivity is increasingly acknowledged as a pathway for the alleviation of rural poverty and food insecurity in smallholder communities in Southeast Asia; yet, in much of Laos, bovine reproductive management is practically absent. Large ruminant reproduction skills were studied, using face-to-face surveys (n=60) of the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of farmers, plus an extension of an examination of parameters of reproductive efficiency (n = 1786 cattle and 434 buffalo) in the northern provinces of Luang Prabang and Xieng Khouang. The surveys particularly involved female farmers to provide gender-disaggregated data, with females making up 38.3 % of participants. Results confirmed that KAPs of smallholder farmers on bovine reproductive management were low (34-46 %) with trends toward higher KAP scores in male survey respondents. Poor reproductive parameters were identified in both provinces, with low calving percentages of 54-75 and 45-54 % in cattle and buffalo groups, respectively, and prolonged inter-calving intervals of 14.1-19.8 and 26.0 months for the cattle and buffalo groups, respectively. Improving the reproductive efficiency of large ruminants in the northern upland regions would enable smallholder farmers to be more effectively engaged in the dramatic economic growth of the Southeast Asia region, although these findings indicate that intensive training and supportive interventions are required to improve large ruminant reproductive outcomes in communities that have low-level large ruminant husbandry skills.

Improving smallholder food security through investigations of carcass composition and beef marketing of buffalo and cattle in northern Lao PDR

This study determined the carcass composition of Lao indigenous buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and cattle (Bos indicus), then examined trends in bovine meat marketing following review of records of beef production and prices in the two major cities of Luang Prabang (LPB) and Xieng Khoung (XK) provinces in northern Laos. Samples from 41 buffalo and 81 cattle (n = 122) were collected from animals slaughtered in May-June 2014, with live weights, carcass weights and other carcass-related variables collected. The animals were classified into four age cohort groups (<2, 2-<4, 4-6 and >6 years) with quantitative and dichotomous qualitative traits determined. There were significant differences in buffalo and cattle predicted mean carcass weights between age classification categories (p = 0.003 and 0.001) but not in dressing percentages (p = 0.1 and 0.1). The carcass weight of buffalo was 104 (±23.1)-176 (±12.0) kg compared to 65 (±8.7)-84 (±6.5) kg of cattle, with dressing percentages of 37-40 and 39-42 %, respectively. Despite an average bovine meat price increase of 42-48 % between 2011 and 2013, there was a reduction in the numbers of large ruminants slaughtered in the surveyed cities of LPB (11 %) and XK (7 %), with bovine meat availability per person of 5.2-6.6 kg (LPB) and 3.0-3.8 kg (XK). Improving the sustainability of the bovine meat supply in Laos requires a systems approach involving improvements to animal health and production, livestock marketing, plus the critical development of improved slaughterhouse facilities enabling a meat-processing sector to emerge. This development pathway is of particular importance for building the capacity of Laos to reduce food insecurity and alleviate the poverty of its largely rural smallholder community.

Progressing smallholder large-ruminant productivity to reduce rural poverty and address food security in upland northern Lao PDR

Applied participatory research on large-ruminant health and production was conducted in six villages in northern Lao PDR. Three villages were classified as ‘high intervention’ (HI) and the remaining three as ‘low intervention’ (LI) sites, with a suite of health and productivity interventions implemented in the HI sites enabling comparison of outcomes with the LI sites, where only a vaccination program was introduced. A 3-year longitudinal study to establish baseline production variables, including liveweight, average daily weight gain (ADG) and reproductive performance, was conducted. The study involved 1500 head of cattle and buffalo that were ear-tagged and weighed every 3–4 months between 2008 and 2011, producing 10 data-collection points. Significant differences in ADG of the cattle between the provinces (P < 0.001), but not between HI and LI villages (P = 0.39), was observed. Low calving rates (51–75% and 41–52%) and inter-calving intervals (13.6–15.7 and 18.6–20.6 months) for cattle and buffalo, respectively, were observed. An on-farm large ruminant-fattening trial (n = 44) was conducted over a 4-month period to examine differences in productivity between cut-and-carry stall fattening (n = 26) and free-grazing (n = 18) systems. Cattle and buffalo in fattening stalls (320 and 217 g/day) had significantly greater ADG than those free-grazing (40 and 85 g/day) (P < 0.001 and P = 0.001). The increase in sale value for fattened cattle and buffalo was US$78 and US$123, respectively. The longitudinal study indicated that if risks of important diseases such as foot and mouth disease and haemorrhagic septicaemia are controlled by vaccination and biosecurity, improved productivity outcomes in northern Lao PDR can be achieved by establishing forage plantations to better manage variations in seasonal availability of feed and enabling fattening. We conclude that improved large-ruminant productivity, by improving health and nutrition practices, offers opportunities for smallholder farmers to increase livestock income, alleviate rural poverty and improve regional food security in South-east Asia.

Target feeding for improved smallholder beef production in the Mekong region: lessons from Cambodia and Lao PDR

Increased demand for red meat throughout the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) presents smallholder cattle and buffalo farmers with an opportunity to supply better quality animals to expanding regional markets. Cattle were target-fed in Cambodia with introduced forages to achieve gains of 0.19 kg/day over a 104-day period and this practice was compared with traditional cut-and-carry feeding practices where animals lost on average 0.04 kg/day. Target-fed animals were predicted to gain, on average, 25.9 kg more weight than animals fed in a traditional manner (P = 0.057), and to improve their estimated value by more than US$60. These outcomes were similar to outcomes in Lao PDR, where cattle and buffalo in fattening stalls gained 0.32 and 0.22 kg/day, respectively, over a 4-month period, and 0.04 and 0.09 kg/day when free-grazing. Greater weight gains are possible if farmers feed forages at the recommended 15% of bodyweight on a fresh-weight basis per day. Lack of knowledge of animal weights by farmers and traders was addressed by the creation of an accurate weight tape to provide a cheap and easy tool to monitor animal production and health, and to assist in negotiating a fair sale value. However, increased knowledge of appropriate forage plot size and feeding requirements of animals to be target-fed is required for farmers to change from being livestock keepers to livestock producers. To increase supply for the growing demand for red meat, an ongoing, multi-disciplinary extension program should be a priority for livestock improvement programs in the GMS.

Improvement in smallholder farmer knowledge of cattle production, health and biosecurity in Southern Cambodia between 2008 and 2010

Farmer knowledge surveys were conducted in 2008 and 2010 in Cambodia to evaluate the impact of a research project studying interventions that can improve cattle production and health, including biosecurity and practices relating to risks of transmission of transboundary diseases. The project hypothesis is that by increasing the value of smallholder-owned large ruminants through nutritional interventions and improved marketing, knowledge-based interventions including risk management for infectious diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can be implemented into a more sustainable pathway for rural development. Between 2008 and 2010, significant improvements in farmer knowledge and attitudes were recorded in three villages in three provinces of southern Cambodia. This was achieved through participatory 'applied field research', 'on the job' training plus 'formal' training programmes. No cases of FMD were recorded during the study period in the 'high-intervention' (HI) villages despite the common occurrence of the disease in a nearby 'low-intervention' and many other villages in the three provinces. Whilst it is likely that protection of these villages from FMD infection was from increasing the herd immunity by vaccination, it could also have been partly because of a decrease in risk behaviours by farmers as a result of their increasing knowledge of biosecurity. The research indicates that smallholder farmers are motivated by nutritional interventions that improve the value of their cattle 'bank' and offer better marketing opportunities. This provides a more receptive environment for introduction of disease risk management for infectious and other production limiting diseases, best implemented for smallholder farmers in Cambodia by intensive training programmes. In lieu of a widespread public awareness programme to deliver mass education of smallholder farmers in disease prevention and biosecurity, livestock development projects in South-East Asia should be encouraged to include training in disease risk management as an important intervention if the current momentum for trade in large ruminant livestock and large ruminant meat is to continue to progress and contribute to addressing global food security concerns.