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Hammarén R, Goldstein ST, Schlebusch CM. Eurasian back-migration into Northeast Africa was a complex and multifaceted process. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0290423. [PMID: 37939042 PMCID: PMC10631636 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have identified Northeast Africa as an important area for human movements during the Holocene. Eurasian populations have moved back into Northeastern Africa and contributed to the genetic composition of its people. By gathering the largest reference dataset to date of Northeast, North, and East African as well as Middle Eastern populations, we give new depth to our knowledge of Northeast African demographic history. By employing local ancestry methods, we isolated the Non-African parts of modern-day Northeast African genomes and identified the best putative source populations. Egyptians and Sudanese Copts bore most similarities to Levantine populations whilst other populations in the region generally had predominantly genetic contributions from the Arabian peninsula rather than Levantine populations for their Non-African genetic component. We also date admixture events and investigated which factors influenced the date of admixture and find that major linguistic families were associated with the date of Eurasian admixture. Taken as a whole we detect complex patterns of admixture and diverse origins of Eurasian admixture in Northeast African populations of today.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rickard Hammarén
- Human Evolution, Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Steven T. Goldstein
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Carina M. Schlebusch
- Human Evolution, Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Palaeo-Research Institute, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
- SciLifeLab, Uppsala, Sweden
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Janzen A, Richter KK, Mwebi O, Brown S, Onduso V, Gatwiri F, Ndiema E, Katongo M, Goldstein ST, Douka K, Boivin N. Distinguishing African bovids using Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS): New peptide markers and insights into Iron Age economies in Zambia. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0251061. [PMID: 34003857 PMCID: PMC8130928 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Assessing past foodways, subsistence strategies, and environments depends on the accurate identification of animals in the archaeological record. The high rates of fragmentation and often poor preservation of animal bones at many archaeological sites across sub-Saharan Africa have rendered archaeofaunal specimens unidentifiable beyond broad categories, such as “large mammal” or “medium bovid”. Identification of archaeofaunal specimens through Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS), or peptide mass fingerprinting of bone collagen, offers an avenue for identification of morphologically ambiguous or unidentifiable bone fragments from such assemblages. However, application of ZooMS analysis has been hindered by a lack of complete reference peptide markers for African taxa, particularly bovids. Here we present the complete set of confirmed ZooMS peptide markers for members of all African bovid tribes. We also identify two novel peptide markers that can be used to further distinguish between bovid groups. We demonstrate that nearly all African bovid subfamilies are distinguishable using ZooMS methods, and some differences exist between tribes or sub-tribes, as is the case for Bovina (cattle) vs. Bubalina (African buffalo) within the subfamily Bovinae. We use ZooMS analysis to identify specimens from extremely fragmented faunal assemblages from six Late Holocene archaeological sites in Zambia. ZooMS-based identifications reveal greater taxonomic richness than analyses based solely on morphology, and these new identifications illuminate Iron Age subsistence economies c. 2200–500 cal BP. While the Iron Age in Zambia is associated with the transition from hunting and foraging to the development of farming and herding, our results demonstrate the continued reliance on wild bovids among Iron Age communities in central and southwestern Zambia Iron Age and herding focused primarily on cattle. We also outline further potential applications of ZooMS in African archaeology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneke Janzen
- Department of Archaeology, Max-Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Kristine Korzow Richter
- Department of Archaeology, Max-Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ogeto Mwebi
- Department of Zoology, Osteology Section, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Samantha Brown
- Department of Archaeology, Max-Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Veronicah Onduso
- Department of Zoology, Osteology Section, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Filia Gatwiri
- Department of Earth Sciences, Archaeology Section, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Emmanuel Ndiema
- Department of Earth Sciences, Archaeology Section, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Maggie Katongo
- Department of Archaeology, Livingstone Museum, Livingstone, Zambia
| | - Steven T. Goldstein
- Department of Archaeology, Max-Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Katerina Douka
- Department of Archaeology, Max-Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Nicole Boivin
- Department of Archaeology, Max-Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., United States of America
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Bleasdale M, Richter KK, Janzen A, Brown S, Scott A, Zech J, Wilkin S, Wang K, Schiffels S, Desideri J, Besse M, Reinold J, Saad M, Babiker H, Power RC, Ndiema E, Ogola C, Manthi FK, Zahir M, Petraglia M, Trachsel C, Nanni P, Grossmann J, Hendy J, Crowther A, Roberts P, Goldstein ST, Boivin N. Ancient proteins provide evidence of dairy consumption in eastern Africa. Nat Commun 2021; 12:632. [PMID: 33504791 PMCID: PMC7841170 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20682-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Consuming the milk of other species is a unique adaptation of Homo sapiens, with implications for health, birth spacing and evolution. Key questions nonetheless remain regarding the origins of dairying and its relationship to the genetically-determined ability to drink milk into adulthood through lactase persistence (LP). As a major centre of LP diversity, Africa is of significant interest to the evolution of dairying. Here we report proteomic evidence for milk consumption in ancient Africa. Using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) we identify dairy proteins in human dental calculus from northeastern Africa, directly demonstrating milk consumption at least six millennia ago. Our findings indicate that pastoralist groups were drinking milk as soon as herding spread into eastern Africa, at a time when the genetic adaptation for milk digestion was absent or rare. Our study links LP status in specific ancient individuals with direct evidence for their consumption of dairy products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeleine Bleasdale
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, King's Manor, Exhibition Square, York, YO1 7EP, UK.
| | - Kristine K Richter
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Anneke Janzen
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Samantha Brown
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Ashley Scott
- Department of Archaeogenetics, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Jana Zech
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Shevan Wilkin
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Ke Wang
- Department of Archaeogenetics, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Stephan Schiffels
- Department of Archaeogenetics, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Jocelyne Desideri
- Laboratory of Prehistoric Archaeology and Anthropology, Department F.-A. Forel for Environmental and Aquatic Sciences, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Marie Besse
- Laboratory of Prehistoric Archaeology and Anthropology, Department F.-A. Forel for Environmental and Aquatic Sciences, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jacques Reinold
- Section française de la Direction des antiquités du Soudan, Khartoum, Sudan
| | - Mohamed Saad
- National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums of Sudan, M.Bolheim Bioarchaeology Laboratory, Khartoum, Sudan
| | - Hiba Babiker
- Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Robert C Power
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- Institute for Pre-and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Emmanuel Ndiema
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- Department of Earth Sciences, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Christine Ogola
- Department of Earth Sciences, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Fredrick K Manthi
- Department of Earth Sciences, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Muhammad Zahir
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- Department of Archaeology, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan
| | - Michael Petraglia
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DA, USA
| | - Christian Trachsel
- Functional Genomics Center, University of Zurich/ETH, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Paolo Nanni
- Functional Genomics Center, University of Zurich/ETH, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jonas Grossmann
- Functional Genomics Center, University of Zurich/ETH, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jessica Hendy
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- BioArCh, Department of Archaeology, University of York, York, UK
| | - Alison Crowther
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Patrick Roberts
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
- School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Steven T Goldstein
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Nicole Boivin
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
- School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
- Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DA, USA.
- Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
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Scerri EML, Kühnert D, Blinkhorn J, Groucutt HS, Roberts P, Nicoll K, Zerboni A, Orijemie EA, Barton H, Candy I, Goldstein ST, Hawks J, Niang K, N'Dah D, Petraglia MD, Vella NC. Field-based sciences must transform in response to COVID-19. Nat Ecol Evol 2020; 4:1571-1574. [PMID: 32929241 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-020-01317-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor M L Scerri
- Pan-African Evolution Research Group, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
| | - Denise Kühnert
- Transmission, Infection, Diversification & Evolution Research Group, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
| | - James Blinkhorn
- Pan-African Evolution Research Group, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.,Centre for Quaternary Research, Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK
| | - Huw S Groucutt
- Extreme Events Research Group, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany.,Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Jena, Germany
| | - Patrick Roberts
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - Kathleen Nicoll
- Department of Geography, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Andrea Zerboni
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra "A.Desio", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | | | - Huw Barton
- School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Ian Candy
- Centre for Quaternary Research, Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK
| | - Steven T Goldstein
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
| | - John Hawks
- Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Khady Niang
- Département d'Histoire, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, Dakar-Fann, Senegal
| | - Didier N'Dah
- Department of History and Archaeology, University of Abomey-Calavi, Abomey-Calavi, Republic of Benin
| | - Michael D Petraglia
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.,School of Social Science, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA
| | - Nicholas C Vella
- Department of Classics and Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
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6
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Goldstein ST, Cassidy WM, Hodgson W, Mahoney FJ. Factors associated with student participation in a school-based hepatitis B immunization program. J Sch Health 2001; 71:184-187. [PMID: 11393930 DOI: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2001.tb07313.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the relationship between participation in a school-based hepatitis B immunization program and teacher attitudes toward school-based health care and student socioeconomic factors. A survey addressing teachers' attitudes was administered to all teachers participating in the program. Information regarding student participation in school lunch programs and scores on national standardized tests were collected. Of the 4,874 fifth-grade students targeted for the program, 3,483 (72%) consented to be vaccinated and 3,232 (93% of 3,483) received all three doses of vaccine. Socioeconomic factors were the most important predictors of student participation in this school-based immunization program. Participation was significantly lower among students in schools with a high proportion of students receiving free or reduced-price school lunch and with low test scores. The only teacher factor associated with student participation was whether the teacher had returned the questionnaire. Strategies to increase immunization coverage in school-based programs should target children of low socioeconomic status.
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Goldstein
- Hepatitis Branch, MS G37, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Hutin YJ, Goldstein ST, Varma JK, O'Dair JB, Mast EE, Shapiro CN, Alter MJ. An outbreak of hospital-acquired hepatitis B virus infection among patients receiving chronic hemodialysis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999; 20:731-5. [PMID: 10580622 DOI: 10.1086/501573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate a cluster of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections between December 1995 and May 1996 among chronic hemodialysis patients in one county. SETTING Two dialysis centers (A and B) and a hospital (C) in one county. PATIENTS Six case-patients who were dialyzed in one of two centers, A and B, and had all been hospitalized between January and February 1996 at hospital C. METHODS Patient 1, usually dialyzed in center A, sero-converted to hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in December 1995 and could have been the source of infection for the others, who seroconverted between March and April 1996. Two cohort studies were conducted: one among patients dialyzed in center A, to determine where transmission had occurred, and one among patients dialyzed at hospital C at the time patient 1 was hospitalized, to identify factors associated with infection. RESULTS Four (15%) of the 26 susceptible patients dialyzed at center A became infected with HBV. Hospitalization at hospital C when patient 1 was hospitalized was associated with infection (P = .002). A cohort study of the 10 susceptible patients dialyzed at hospital C during the time patient 1 was hospitalized did not identify specific risk factors for infection. However, supplies and multidose vials were shared routinely among patients, providing opportunities for transmission. CONCLUSION When chronic hemodialysis patients require dialysis while hospitalized, their HBsAg status should be reviewed, and no instrument, supplies, or medications should be shared among them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y J Hutin
- Hepatitis Branch, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Epidemiology Program Office, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
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8
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Hutin YJ, Pool V, Cramer EH, Nainan OV, Weth J, Williams IT, Goldstein ST, Gensheimer KF, Bell BP, Shapiro CN, Alter MJ, Margolis HS. A multistate, foodborne outbreak of hepatitis A. National Hepatitis A Investigation Team. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:595-602. [PMID: 10029643 DOI: 10.1056/nejm199902253400802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We investigated a large, foodborne outbreak of hepatitis A that occurred in February and March 1997 in Michigan and then extended the investigation to determine whether it was related to sporadic cases reported in other states among persons who had consumed frozen strawberries, the food suspected of causing the outbreak. METHODS The cases of hepatitis A were serologically confirmed. Epidemiologic studies were conducted in the two states with sufficient numbers of cases, Michigan and Maine. Hepatitis A virus RNA detected in clinical specimens was sequenced to determine the relatedness of the virus from outbreak-related cases and other cases. RESULTS A total of 213 cases of hepatitis A were reported from 23 schools in Michigan and 29 cases from 13 schools in Maine, with the median rate of attack ranging from 0.2 to 14 percent. Hepatitis A was associated with the consumption of frozen strawberries in a case-control study (odds ratio for the disease, 8.3; 95 percent confidence interval, 2.1 to 33) and a cohort study (relative risk of infection, 7.5; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.1 to 53) in Michigan and in a case-control study in Maine (odds ratio for infection, 3.4; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.0 to 14). The genetic sequences of viruses from 126 patients in Michigan and Maine were identical to one another and to those from 5 patients in Wisconsin and 7 patients in Arizona, all of whom attended schools where frozen strawberries from the same processor had been served, and to those in 2 patients from Louisiana, both of whom had consumed commercially prepared products containing frozen strawberries from the same processor. CONCLUSIONS We describe a large outbreak of hepatitis A in Michigan that was associated with the consumption of frozen strawberries. We found apparently sporadic cases in other states that could be linked to the same source by viral genetic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y J Hutin
- Hepatitis Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Kramer MH, Sorhage FE, Goldstein ST, Dalley E, Wahlquist SP, Herwaldt BL. First reported outbreak in the United States of cryptosporidiosis associated with a recreational lake. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26:27-33. [PMID: 9455506 DOI: 10.1086/516271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In the summer of 1994, an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis occurred among visitors to a state park in New Jersey. We enrolled 185 persons in a cohort study, 38 (20.5%) of whom had laboratory-confirmed cryptosporidiosis or gastrointestinal illness that met our clinical case definition. Having any exposure to lake water (e.g., swimming) was strongly associated with illness (P < .001). The outbreak lasted 4 weeks and affected an estimated 2,070 persons. The most likely sources of the outbreak were contaminated runoff of rainwater and infected bathers. This outbreak of cryptosporidiosis is the first reported to be associated with recreational exposure to lake water. Our investigation shows that even a large and ongoing outbreak may not be detected for several weeks. Health professionals and persons at high risk for severe cryptosporidiosis should be aware that recreational water can be a source of cryptosporidium infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M H Kramer
- Epidemic Intelligence Service (Epidemiology Program Office), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341-3724, USA
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Goldstein ST, Shapiro CN. A recombinant circumsporozoite protein vaccine against malaria. N Engl J Med 1997; 336:1760; author reply 1760-1. [PMID: 9182223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Goldstein ST, Juranek DD, Ravenholt O, Hightower AW, Martin DG, Mesnik JL, Griffiths SD, Bryant AJ, Reich RR, Herwaldt BL. Cryptosporidiosis: an outbreak associated with drinking water despite state-of-the-art water treatment. Ann Intern Med 1996; 124:459-68. [PMID: 8602703 DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-124-5-199603010-00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the magnitude and source of an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis among persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and to determine whether the outbreak extended into the immunocompetent population. DESIGN Matched case-control study and environmental investigation. SETTING Clark County, Nevada. PARTICIPANTS Adults with HIV infection (36 case-patients with laboratory-confirmed Cryptosporidium parvum infection and 107 controls), matched by physician or clinic and by CD4+ cell count category. MEASUREMENTS Potential risk factors for infection, death rates, and data on water quality. RESULTS Review of surveillance and microbiology records identified 3 cases of cryptosporidiosis in 1992 (the first year that cryptosporidiosis was reportable in Nevada), 23 cases in 1993, and 78 cases in the first quarter of 1994. Of the 78 laboratory-confirmed cases in the first quarter of 1994, 61 (78.2%) were in HIV-infected adults. Of these 61 adults, 32 (52.5%) had died by 30 June 1994; at least 20 of the 32 (62.5%) had cryptosporidiosis listed on their death certificates. In the case-control study, persons who drank any unboiled tap water were four times more likely than persons who drank only bottled water to have had cryptosporidiosis (odds ratio, 4.22 [95% Cl, 1.22 to 14.65]; P = 0.02). For persons with CD4+ cell counts less than 100 cells/mm3, the association between tap water and cryptosporidiosis was even stronger (odds ratio, 13.52 [Cl, 1.78 to 102.92]; P = 0.01). Additional data indicate that this outbreak also affected persons who were not infected with HIV. No elevated turbidity values or coliform counts and no Cryptosporidium oocysts were found in testing of source (Lake Mead) or finished (treated) water during the study period, but so-called presumptive oocysts were intermittently found after the investigation in samples of source water, filter backwash, and finished water. CONCLUSIONS A cryptosporidiosis outbreak was associated with municipal drinking water, despite state-of-the-art water treatment and water quality better than that required by current federal standards. This outbreak highlights the importance of surveillance for cryptosporidiosis and the need for guidelines for the prevention of water-borne-Cryptosporidium infection among HIV-infected persons.
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Goldstein
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
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