Ganoderma microsporum immunomodulatory protein combined with KRASG12C inhibitor impedes intracellular AKT/ERK network to suppress lung cancer cells with KRAS mutation

KRAS mutations are tightly associated with lung cancer progression. Despite the unprecedented clinical success of KRASG12C inhibitors, recurrent mechanisms of resistance and other KRAS mutations require further therapeutic approaches. GMI, a protein from the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma microsporum, possesses antitumor activity; whereas, the biological function of GMI on regulating KRAS mutant lung cancer cells remains unknown. Herein, RNA-sequencing and bioinformatics showed that GMI may regulate KRAS-modulated MAPK and PI3K-AKT pathways in A549 (KRASG12S) cells. Further experiments demonstrated that GMI inhibited KRAS activation and suppressed ERK1/2 and AKT signaling in A549 cells. Intriguingly, GMI inhibited AKT signaling but increased phosphorylation of ERK in H358 (KRASG12C) cells. GMI significantly suppressed tumor growth in LLC1 cells-allograft and H358 cells-xenograft mice. GMI showed a synergistic effect with KRASG12C inhibitors in inhibiting cell growth, KRAS activation and KRAS-mediated downstream signaling, leading to apoptosis in H358 cells. Combination of GMI and KRASG12C inhibitor, AMG 510, resulted in more durable inhibition of tumor growth and KRAS activity in H358 cells-xenograft mice. This study highlights the potential of GMI, a dietary fungal protein, as a viable therapeutic avenue for KRAS-mutant lung cancer in combination with KRASG12C inhibitors.

GMI, a Ganoderma microsporum protein, abolishes focal adhesion network to reduce cell migration and metastasis of lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Cancer metastasis is a major cause of cancer-related deaths, emphasizing the urgent need for effective therapies. Although it has been shown that GMI, a fungal protein from Ganoderma microsporum, could suppress primary tumor growth in a wide spectrum of cancer types, it is still unclear whether GMI exhibits anti-metastasis properties, particularly in lung cancers. Further investigation is needed.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study is to investigate the potential inhibitory effects of GMI on lung cancer metastasis in vivo. Utilizing systematic and comprehensive approaches, our research aims to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for the anti-metastatic effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro migration and cell adhesion assays addressed the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related phenotype. Proteomic and bioinformatic analyses identified the GMI-regulated proteins and cellular responses. GMI-treated LLC1-bearing mice were analyzed using IVIS Spectrum to assess the anti-metastatic effect.

KEY FINDINGS

GMI inhibits EMT as well as cell migration. GMI disrupts cell adhesion and downregulates integrin, resulting in inhibition of phosphorylated FAK. GMI induces macropinocytosis and lysosome-mediated degradation of integrin αv, α5, α6 and β1. GMI downregulates Slug via inhibition of FAK activity, which in turn enhances expressions of epithelial-related markers and decreases cell mobility. Mechanistically, GMI-induced FAK inhibition engenders MDM2 expression and enhances MDM2/p21/Slug complex formation, leading to Slug degradation. GMI treatment reduces the metastatic pulmonary lesion and prolongs the survival of LLC1-bearing mice.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings highlight GMI as a promising therapeutic candidate for metastatic lung cancers, offering potential avenues for further research and drug development.

Traditional Chinese medicine Kuan-Sin-Yin decoction inhibits cell mobility via downregulation of CCL2, CEACAM1 and PIK3R3 in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kuan-Sin-Yin (KSY) is a traditional Chinese medical decoction, designed based on the classic Si-Jun-Zi-Tang decoction and used clinically to improve the synergic effects of energy promotion, liver function and cancer related symptom and quality of life. However, the anti-hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) function of KSY is unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the anti-mobility activity of KSY on HCC cells and elucidate its molecular mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two malignancy hepatocellular carcinoma cells, Mahlavu and SK-Hep-1, were used for the test of cell proliferation via alarm blue assay. The wound healing and Transwell assays were used to determine the anti-mobility activity of KSY in HCC cells. Cell morphology was analyzed via confocal microscopy. The genomic profile of KSY-treated HCC cells was analyzed by microarray. The potential signaling pathways and bio-functions of KSY-mediated genes were analyzed by ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA). Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was used to detect the messenger RNA (mRNA) level of indicated gene.

RESULTS

KSY did not affect cell viability of HCC cells but significantly inhibited cell migration and invasion in those HCC Mahlavu and SK-Hep-1 cells. In parallel, KSY induced changes in morphology of HCC cells via re-modulating actin cytoskeleton. KSY upregulated 1270 genes but reduced 1534 genes in Mahlavu cells. KSY regulated various gene networks which controlled cell migration, invasion and movement. Specifically, KSY reduced expression of chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), which is correlated to cell mobility, and concomitantly downregulated mRNA levels of phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit 3 (PIK3R3) and CEA cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1).

CONCLUSION

These findings indicated that regulation of CCL2-mediated PIK3R3 and CEACAM1 may be involved in KSY inhibited cell mobility. Moreover, KSY may be a potential a Chinese decoction for reducing cell mobility.

Ganoderma microsporum immunomodulatory protein as an extracellular epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) degrader for suppressing EGFR-positive lung cancer cells

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) abnormalities relevant to tumor progression. A newly developed strategy for cancer therapy is induction of EGFR degradation. GMI, an immunomodulatory protein from the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma microsporum, exhibits anticancer activity. However, its role in the intracellular trafficking and degradation of EGFR remains unclear. In this study, we discovered that GMI inhibits the phosphorylation of multiple tyrosine kinases. Specifically, GMI was discovered to suppress lung cancer cells harboring both wild-type and mutant EGFR by inhibiting EGFR dimerization and eliminating EGFR-mediated signaling. Functional studies revealed that GMI binds to the extracellular segment of EGFR. GMI interacts with EGFR to induce phosphorylation of EGFR at tyrosine1045, which triggers clathrin-dependent endocytosis and degradation of EGFR. Furthermore, in the mouse models, GMI was discovered to suppress tumor growth. Knockdown of EGFR in lung cancer cells abolishes GMI's anticancer activity in vivo and in vitro. Our results reveal the interaction mechanisms through which GMI induces EGFR degradation and abolishes EGFR-mediated intracellular pathway. Our study indicates that GMI is an EGFR degrader for inhibiting EGFR-expressing tumor growth.

GMI, a fungal immunomodulatory protein, ameliorates SARS-CoV-2 envelope protein-induced inflammation in macrophages via inhibition of MAPK pathway

Clinically, COVID-19 is often accompanied by a severe immune response (cytokine storm) which produces a large number of cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-12, and consequently causes acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). GMI is a type of fungal immunomodulatory protein that is cloned from Ganoderma microsporum and acts as modulating immunocyte for various inflammatory diseases. This study identifies GMI as a potential anti-inflammatory agent and determines the effects of GMI on the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2-induced cytokine secretion. Functional studies showed that SARS-CoV-2 envelop (E) protein induces inflammatory process in murine macrophages RAW264.7 and MH-S cells and in phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-stimulated human THP-1 cells. GMI exhibits a strong inhibitory effect for SARS-CoV-2-E-induced pro-inflammatory mediators, including NO, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-12 in macrophages. GMI reduces SARS-CoV-2-E-induced intracellular inflammatory molecules, such as iNOS and COX-2, and inhibits SARS-CoV-2-E-stimulated phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and P38. GMI also downregulates pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in lung tissue and serum after the mice inhale SARS-CoV-2-E protein. In conclusion, this study shows that GMI acts as an agent to alleviate SARS-CoV-2-E-induced inflammation.

GMI, Ganoderma microsporum protein, suppresses cell mobility and increases temozolomide sensitivity through induction of Slug degradation in glioblastoma multiforme cells

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), which is a malignant primary brain tumor, is the cancer that spreads most aggressively into the adjacent brain tissue. Patients with metastatic GBM have a poor chance of survival. In this study, we examined the anti-GBM mobility effect of small protein, called GMI, which is cloned and purified from Ganoderma microsporum. Proteomic profiles showed that GMI-mediated proteins were involved in cell motility and cell growth functions. Specifically, we demonstrated that GMI significantly suppressed cell migration and invasion of GBM cells. GMI combined with temozolomide (TMZ), which is a traditional chemotherapeutic agent for GBM treatment, synergistically inhibited motility in GBM cells. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that GMI induced proteasome-dependent degradation of Slug, which is a critical transcription factor, is frequently linked to metastasis and drug resistance in GBM. Knockdown of Slug reduced cell viability and colony formation of GBM cells but enhanced TMZ-suppressed cell migration and viability. The results of this study show that targeting Slug degradation is involved in GMI-suppressed mobility of GBM cells. Moreover, GMI may be a potential supplementary agent for the suppression of GBM.

GMI, a protein from Ganoderma microsporum, induces ACE2 degradation to alleviate infection of SARS-CoV-2 Spike-pseudotyped virus

BACKGROUND

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) induces a global serious pandemic and is responsible for over 4 million human deaths. Currently, although various vaccines have been developed, humans can still get SARS-CoV-2 infection after being vaccinated. Therefore, the blocking of SARS-CoV-2 infection may be potential therapeutic strategies. Ganoderma microsporum immunomodulatory protein (GMI), a small fungal protein, is cloned from Ganoderma microsporum. It exhibits anti-cancer and immunomodulatory functions. Currently, it is still unclear whether GMI involves in interfering with viral infection.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to examine the potential functions and mechanisms of GMI on inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus infection.

METHODS

The effects of GMI were examined in vitro on ACE2 overexpressing HEK293T (HEK293T/ACE2) cells exposed to SARS-CoV-2 Spike lentiviral pseudovirus encoding a green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene. The infection efficacy was determined using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. The protein level of ACE2 was verified by Western blot. The effects of GMI on cell viability of HEK293T/ACE2 and lung epithelial WI38-2RA cells were determined by MTT assay. Mice received GMI via nebulizer.

RESULTS

GMI did not affect the cell viability of HEK293T/ACE2, WI38-2RA and macrophages. Functional studies showed that GMI inhibited GFP expressing SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus from infecting HEK293T/ACE2 cells. GMI slightly interfered the interaction between ACE2 and Spike protein. GMI interacted with S2 domain of Spike protein. Specifically, GMI dramatically reduced ACE2 expression in HEK293T/ACE2 and WI38-2RA cells. Mechanistically, GMI induced ACE2 degradation via activating protein degradation system, including proteasome and lysosome. Abolishing proteasome and lysosome by MG132 and bafilomycin A1, respectively, rescued GMI-reduced ACE2 levels. In addition, GMI triggered dynamin and lipid raft-mediated ACE2 endocytosis. ACE2 levels were downregulated in the lung tissue after the mice inhaling GMI.

CONCLUSIONS

GMI prevents SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus infection via induction of ACE2 degradation in host cells. Our findings suggest that GMI will be a potential prevention agent to alleviate SARS-CoV-2 infection.

WSG, a Glucose-Rich Polysaccharide from Ganoderma lucidum, Combined with Cisplatin Potentiates Inhibition of Lung Cancer In Vitro and In Vivo

Lung cancer has the highest global mortality rate of any cancer. Although targeted therapeutic drugs are commercially available, the common drug resistance and insensitivity to cisplatin-based chemotherapy, a common clinical treatment for lung cancer, have prompted active research on alternative lung cancer therapies and methods for mitigating cisplatin-related complications. In this study, we investigated the effect of WSG, a glucose-rich, water soluble polysaccharide derived from Ganoderma lucidum, on cisplatin-based treatment for lung cancer. Murine Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC1) cells were injected into C57BL/6 mice subcutaneously and through the tail vein. The combined administration of WSG and cisplatin effectively inhibited tumor growth and the formation of metastatic nodules in the lung tissue of the mice. Moreover, WSG increased the survival rate of mice receiving cisplatin. Co-treatment with WSG and cisplatin induced a synergistic inhibitory effect on the growth of lung cancer cells, enhancing the apoptotic responses mediated by cisplatin. WSG also reduced the cytotoxic effect of cisplatin in both macrophages and normal lung fibroblasts. Our findings suggest that WSG can increase the therapeutic effectiveness of cisplatin. In clinical settings, WSG may be used as an adjuvant or supplementary agent.

[Comparison of efficacy and safety of insulin aspart injection Rishulin and NovoRapid for treatment of diabetes: a multicenter, randomized, open-labeled, controlled trial]

Objective: To compare the efficacy and safety of Tonghua Dongbao's insulin aspart injection (Rishulin) and NovoRapid (Novo Nordisk) in the treatment of diabetes. Methods: A 26-week, randomized, open-label, parallel-group, positive control drug and non-inferiority trial was conducted in 23 centers in China. A total of 563 diabetes with poor blood glucose control treated with insulin for at least 3 months before were included. The subjects were randomized(stratified block random method) into those receiving Rishulin or NovoRapid at a ratio of 3∶1. Both groups were combined with basal insulin (Lantus). The primary endpoint was the change in glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) from baseline to the end of 24 weeks of treatment. Results: For full analysis set, after 24 weeks of treatment, HbA1c level of Ruishulin group decreased from (8.66±1.28)% to (7.77±1.09)% (P<0.001), and that of NovoRapid group decreased from (8.47±1.28) % to (7.65±0.97) % (P<0.001). Treatment difference in HbA1c (NovoRapid group-Ruishulin group) was -0.061% (95%CI -0.320-0.199). HbA1c<7.0% target reacing rates were 24.26% and 21.21% (P=0.456), and HbA1c<6.5% target reacing rates were 9.65% and 6.82% (P=0.310) in Ruishulin group and NovoRapid group, repectively. The standard 2 hours postprandial blood glucose (2hPG) in Ruishulin group decreased from (16.23±5.22) mmol/L to (12.65±4.57) mmol/L (P<0.001), and 2hPG in NovoRapid group decreased from (16.13±5.37) mmol/L to (11.91)±4.21) mmol/L (P<0.001). The fingertips blood glucose at 7-point of both groups exhibited varying degrees of reduction compared with those at baseline, repectively. Positive ratios of specific antibodies were 31.68% in Ruishulin group and 36.36% in NovoRapid group (P=0.320). Ratios of negative to positive were 7.43% and 10.61% (P=0.360), and ratios of positive to negative were 10.40% and 7.58% (P=0.360) in Ruishulin group and NovoRapid group, respectively. The incidence of hypoglycemia was 60.05% and 55.40% (P=0.371), and the incidence of adverse events was 76.60% and 77.70% (P=0.818) in Ruishulin group and NovoRapid group, respectively. Conclusions: Rishulin is not inferior to NovoRapid, and has shown good efficacy and safety. It can be an ideal choice for clinicians in patients with poor blood glucose control with insulin.

Functional proteomic analysis reveals that fungal immunomodulatory protein reduced expressions of heat shock proteins correlates to apoptosis in lung cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Ling Zhi-8 (LZ-8) and GMI are two fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs) with a similar structure and amino acid sequence and are respectively obtained from the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma microsporum. They present the anti-cancer progression and metastasis. We previously demonstrated that LZ-8 reduces the tumor progression in lung cancer LLC1 cell-bearing mouse. However, it is unclear whether these FIPs induce changes in the protein expression profile in cancer cells and the mechanism for such a process is not defined.

PURPOSE

This study determines the changes in the proteomic profile for tumor lesions of LLC1 cell-bearing mouse received with LZ-8 and the potential mechanism for FIPs in anti-lung cancer cells.

METHODS

The proteomic profile of tumor lesions was determined using two-dimensional electrophoresis and a LTQ-OrbitrapXL mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS). The biological processes and the signaling pathway enrichment analysis were performed using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). The differentially expressed proteins were verified by Western blot. Cell viability was determined by MTT assay. Cell morphology was characterized using electron microscopy. Migration was detected using the Transwell assay. The apoptotic response was determined using Western blot and flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Obtained results showed that 21 proteins in the tumor lesions exhibited differential (2-fold change, p < 0.05) expression between PBS and LZ-8 treatment groups. LZ-8-induced changes in the proteomic profile that may relate to protein degradation pathways. Specifically, three heat shock proteins (HSPs), HSP60, 70 and 90, were significantly downregulated in tumor lesions of LLC1-bearing mouse received with LZ-8. Both LZ-8 and GMI reduced the protein levels for these HSPs in lung cancer cells. Functional studies showed that they inhibited cell migration but effectively induced apoptotic response in LLC1 cells in vitro. In addition, the inhibitors of HSP60 and HSP70 effectively inhibited cell migration and decreased cell viability of LLC1 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

LZ-8 induced changes in the proteomic profile of tumor lesions which may regulate the HSPs-related cell viability. Moreover, inhibition of HSPs may be related to the anti-lung cancer activity.

Effects of WSG, a polysaccharide from Ganoderma lucidum, on suppressing cell growth and mobility of lung cancer

WSG is a water soluble polysaccharides isolated from Ganoderma lucidum. In this study, we showed that WSG, a glucose-rich polysaccharide with an average molecular mass of approximately 1000 kDa, effectively inhibited cell viability and mobility of lung cancer cells. Functional studies revealed that WSG reduced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in cells upon either EGF or TGFβ stimulation. WSG also inhibited phosphorylation of multiple intracellular signaling molecules such as FAK, AKT and Smad2. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that WSG induced degradation of TGFβ and EGF receptors via proteasome and lysosome, respectively. Moreover, we found that WSG significantly suppressed lung tumor growth, reduced the size of metastatic nodules in the lungs and prolonged the survival of LLC1-bearing mice. Our findings suggested that WSG may have potential as a therapeutic intervention for treatment of lung cancer.

Particle bombardment drastically increases the infectivity of cloned DNA of zucchini yellow mosaic potyvirus

An infectious full-length cDNA clone of the RNA genome of the potyvirus zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) was constructed under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. All squash, cucumber, melon and watermelon plants inoculated with the cloned cDNA of ZYMV by particle bombardment become infected. Bombardment technology is 10(6)-fold more effective than mechanical inoculation. Due to the great increase in efficiency, ineffective constructs now became infective (i.e. cDNA under the control of the 35S promoter without the NOS terminator; with an addition of 127 nucleotides at the 5' end of the viral cDNA; uncapped transcripts), and the infectivity of capped-transcripts was maximized. Inoculation by particle bombardment produced visual symptoms rapidly (3-4 days), allowing the detection of viral coat protein and virions after 2 and 3 days in systemically infected leaves and inoculated cotyledons respectively.