Surgical management of pediatric spinal aneurysmal bone cysts: patient series

BACKGROUND

Aneurysmal bone cysts (ABCs) are rare, highly vascular osteolytic bone lesions that predominantly affect pediatric populations. This report evaluates the clinicopathological data of pediatric patients with spinal ABCs. The medical records for all patients at Children's Hospital Los Angeles with biopsy-proven ABCs of the spine between 1998 and 2018 were evaluated.

OBSERVATIONS

Seventeen patients, 6 males and 11 females, were identified. The mean age at surgery was 10.4 years (range, 3.5-20 years). The most common presenting complaint was pain at the lesion site 16/17 (94%), followed by lower-extremity weakness 8/17 (47%). Resection and intralesional curettage were performed in all patients. Three (18%) of 17 patients underwent selective arterial embolization prior to resection. Spinal stability was compromised in 15 of 17 patients (88%), requiring instrumented fusion. Five (29%) of the 17 patients received additional therapy including radiation, calcitonin-methylprednisolone, or phenol. Four (23.5%) of 17 patients experienced a recurrence, and the mean time to recurrence was 15 months. The postoperative follow-up ranged from 6 to 108 months (median, 28 months). Reoperation occurred after an average of 35 months. At the recent follow-up, patients were free of disease.

LESSONS

Gross-total resection by intralesional curettage with case-dependent instrumented spinal fusion for instability remains an effective strategy for managing pediatric spinal ABCs. Long-term follow-up is necessary to detect tumor recurrence.

Minimally invasive surgical treatment of intracranial meningiomas in elderly patients (≥ 65 years): outcomes, readmissions, and tumor control

OBJECTIVE

Increased lifespan has led to more elderly patients being diagnosed with meningiomas. In this study, the authors sought to analyze and compare patients ≥ 65 years old with those < 65 years old who underwent minimally invasive surgery for meningioma. To address surgical selection criteria, the authors also assessed a cohort of patients managed without surgery.

METHODS

In a retrospective analysis, consecutive patients with meningiomas who underwent minimally invasive (endonasal, supraorbital, minipterional, transfalcine, or retromastoid) and conventional surgical treatment approaches during the period from 2008 to 2019 were dichotomized into those ≥ 65 and those < 65 years old to compare resection rates, endoscopy use, complications, and length of hospital stay (LOS). A comparator meningioma cohort of patients ≥ 65 years old who were observed without surgery during the period from 2015 to 2019 was also analyzed.

RESULTS

Of 291 patients (median age 60 years, 71.5% females, mean follow-up 36 months) undergoing meningioma resection, 118 (40.5%) were aged ≥ 65 years and underwent 126 surgeries, including 20% redo operations, as follows: age 65-69 years, 46 operations; 70-74 years, 40 operations; 75-79 years, 17 operations; and ≥ 80 years, 23 operations. During 2015-2019, of 98 patients referred for meningioma, 67 (68%) had surgery, 1 (1%) had radiosurgery, and 31 (32%) were observed. In the 11-year surgical cohort, comparing 173 patients < 65 years versus 118 patients ≥ 65 years old, there were no significant differences in tumor location, size, or outcomes. Of 126 cases of surgery in 118 elderly patients, the approach was a minimally invasive approach to skull base meningioma (SBM) in 64 cases (51%) as follows: endonasal 18, supraorbital 28, minipterional 6, and retrosigmoid 12. Endoscope-assisted surgery was performed in 59.5% of patients. A conventional approach to SBM was performed in 15 cases (12%) (endoscope-assisted 13.3%), and convexity craniotomy for non-skull base meningioma (NSBM) in 47 cases (37%) (endoscope-assisted 17%). In these three cohorts (minimally invasive SBM, conventional SBM, and NSBM), the gross-total/near-total resection rates were 59.5%, 60%, and 91.5%, respectively, and an improved or stable Karnofsky Performance Status score occurred in 88.6%, 86.7%, and 87.2% of cases, respectively. For these 118 elderly patients, the median LOS was 3 days, and major complications occurred in 10 patients (8%) as follows: stroke 4%, vision decline 3%, systemic complications 0.7%, and wound infection or death 0. Eighty-three percent of patients were discharged home, and readmissions occurred in 5 patients (4%). Meningioma recurrence occurred in 4 patients (3%) and progression in 11 (9%). Multivariate regression analysis showed no significance of American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status score, comorbidities, or age subgroups on outcomes; patients aged ≥ 80 years showed a trend of longer hospitalization.

CONCLUSIONS

This analysis suggests that elderly patients with meningiomas, when carefully selected, generally have excellent surgical outcomes and tumor control. When applied appropriately, use of minimally invasive approaches and endoscopy may be helpful in achieving maximal safe resection, reducing complications, and promoting short hospitalizations. Notably, one-third of our elderly meningioma patients referred for possible surgery from 2015 to 2019 were managed nonoperatively.

Impact of tumor characteristics and pre- and postoperative hormone levels on hormonal remission following endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery in patients with acromegaly

OBJECTIVE

Acromegaly is a disease of acral enlargement and elevated serum levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and growth hormone (GH), usually caused by a pituitary adenoma. A lack of consensus on factors that reliably predict outcomes in acromegalic patients following endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal surgery (EETS) warrants additional investigation.

METHODS

The authors identified 52 patients with acromegaly who underwent an endoscopic endonasal approach (EEA) for resection of a GH-secreting pituitary adenoma. Preoperative and postoperative tumor and endocrinological characteristics such as tumor size, invasiveness, and GH/IGF-1 levels were evaluated as potential indicators of postoperative hormonal remission. Endocrinological remission was defined as postoperative IGF-1 levels at or below the age- and sex-normalized values.

RESULTS

The 52 patients had a mean age of 50.7 ± 13.4 years and a mean follow-up duration of 24.4 ± 19.1 months. Ten patients (19%) had microadenomas and 42 (81%) had macroadenomas. Five patients (9.6%) had giant adenomas. Forty-four tumors (85%) had extrasellar extension, with 40 (77%) exhibiting infrasellar invasion, 18 (35%) extending above the sella, and 7 (13%) invading the cavernous sinuses. Thirty-six patients (69%) underwent gross-total resection (GTR; mean maximal tumor diameter 1.47 cm), and 16 (31%) underwent subtotal resection (STR; mean maximal tumor diameter 2.74 cm). Invasive tumors were significantly larger, and Knosp scores were negatively correlated with GTR. Thirty-eight patients (73%) achieved hormonal remission after EEA resection alone, which increased to 87% with adjunctive medical therapy. Ninety percent of patients with microadenomas and 86% of patients with macroadenomas achieved hormonal remission. Preoperative IGF-1 and postoperative day 1 (POD1) GH levels were inversely correlated with hormonal remission. Postoperative CSF leakage occurred in 2 patients (4%), and none experienced vision loss, death, or injury to internal carotid arteries or cranial nerves.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic transsphenoidal resection of GH-secreting pituitary adenomas is a safe and highly effective treatment for achieving hormonal remission and tumor control in up to 87% of patients with acromegaly when combined with postoperative medical therapy. Patients with lower preoperative IGF-1 and POD1 GH levels, with less invasive pituitary adenomas, and who undergo GTR are more likely to achieve postoperative biochemical remission.

Clinical characteristics and outcomes of null-cell versus silent gonadotroph adenomas in a series of 1166 pituitary adenomas from a single institution

OBJECTIVE

Nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas present without biochemical or clinical signs of hormone excess and are the second most common type of pituitary adenomas. The 2017 WHO classification scheme of pituitary adenomas differentiates null-cell adenomas (NCAs) and silent gonadotroph adenomas (SGAs). The present study sought to highlight the differences in patient characteristics and clinical outcomes between NCAs and SGAs.

METHODS

The records of 1166 patients who underwent transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenoma between 2012 and 2019 at a single institution were retrospectively reviewed. Patient demographics and clinical outcomes were collected.

RESULTS

Of the overall pituitary adenoma cohort, 12.8% (n = 149) were SGAs and 9.2% (n = 107) NCAs. NCAs were significantly more common in female patients than SGAs (61.7% vs 26.8%, p < 0.001). There were no differences in patient demographics, initial tumor size, or perioperative and short-term clinical outcomes. There was no significant difference in the amount of follow-up between patients with NCAs and those with SGAs (33.8 months vs 29.1 months, p = 0.237). Patients with NCAs had significantly higher recurrence (p = 0.021), adjuvant radiation therapy usage (p = 0.002), and postoperative diabetes insipidus (p = 0.028). NCA pathology was independently associated with tumor recurrence (HR 3.64, 95% CI 1.07-12.30; p = 0.038), as were cavernous sinus invasion (HR 3.97, 95% CI 1.04-15.14; p = 0.043) and anteroposterior dimension of the tumor (HR 2.23, 95% CI 1.09-4.59; p = 0.030).

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports the definition of NCAs and SGAs as separate subgroups of nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas, and it highlights significant differences in long-term clinical outcomes, including tumor recurrence and the associated need for adjuvant radiation therapy, as well as postoperative diabetes insipidus. The authors also provide insight into independent risk factors for these outcomes in the adenoma population studied, providing clinicians with additional predictors of patient outcomes. Follow-up studies will hopefully uncover mechanisms of biological aggressiveness in NCAs and associated molecular targets.

Incorporating genomic signatures into surgical and medical decision-making for elderly glioblastoma patients

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common type of malignant primary brain tumor in adults. It is a uniformly fatal disease (median overall survival 16 months) even with aggressive resection and an adjuvant temozolomide-based chemoradiation regimen. Age remains an independent risk factor for a poor prognosis. Several factors contribute to the dismal outcomes in the elderly population with GBM, including poor baseline health status, differences in underlying genomic alterations, and variability in the surgical and medical management of this subpopulation. The latter arises from a lack of adequate representation of elderly patients in clinical trials, resulting in limited data on the response of this subpopulation to standard treatment. Results from retrospective and some prospective studies have indicated that resection of only contrast-enhancing lesions and administration of hypofractionated radiotherapy in combination with temozolomide are effective strategies for optimizing survival while maintaining baseline quality of life in elderly GBM patients; however, survival remains dismal relative to that in a younger cohort. Here, the authors present historical context for the current strategies used for the multimodal management (surgical and medical) of elderly patients with GBM. Furthermore, they provide insights into elderly GBM patient-specific genomic signatures such as isocitrate dehydrogenase 1/2 (IDH1/2) wildtype status, telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter (TERTp) mutations, and somatic copy number alterations including CDK4/MDM2 coamplification, which are becoming better understood and could be utilized in a clinical trial design and patient stratification to guide the development of more effective adjuvant therapies specifically for elderly GBM patients.

Determining the role of adjuvant radiotherapy in the management of meningioma: a Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results analysis

OBJECTIVEThe aim of this study was to illustrate the demographic characteristics of meningioma patients and observe the effect of adjuvant radiation therapy on survival by using the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database. More specifically, the authors aimed to answer the question of whether adjuvant radiotherapy following resection of atypical meningioma confers a cause-specific survival benefit. Additionally, they attempted to add to previous characterizations of the epidemiology of primary meningiomas and assess the effectiveness of the standard of care for benign and anaplastic meningiomas. They also sought to characterize the efficacy of various treatment options in atypical and anaplastic meningiomas separately since nearly all other analyses have grouped these two together despite varying treatment regimens for these behavior categories.METHODSSEER data from 1973 to 2015 were queried using appropriate ICD-O-3 codes for benign, atypical, and anaplastic meningiomas. Patient demographics, tumor characteristics, and treatment choices were analyzed. The effects of treatment were examined using a multivariate Cox proportional hazards model and Kaplan-Meier survival analysis.RESULTSA total of 57,998 patients were included in the analysis of demographic, meningioma, and treatment characteristics. Among this population, cases of unspecified WHO tumor grade were excluded in the multivariate analysis, leaving a total of 12,931 patients to examine outcomes among treatment paradigms. In benign meningiomas, gross-total resection (HR 0.289, p = 0.013) imparted a significant cause-specific survival benefit over no treatment. In anaplastic meningioma cases, adjuvant radiotherapy imparted a significant survival benefit following both subtotal (HR 0.089, p = 0.018) and gross-total (HR 0.162, p = 0.002) resection as compared to gross-total resection alone. In atypical tumors, gross-total resection plus radiotherapy did not significantly change the hazard risk (HR 1.353, p = 0.628) compared to gross-total resection alone. Similarly, it was found that adjuvant radiation did not significantly benefit survival after a subtotal resection (HR 1.440, p = 0.644).CONCLUSIONSThe results of this study demonstrate that the role of adjuvant radiotherapy, especially after the resection of atypical meningioma, remains somewhat unclear. Thus, given these results, prospective randomized clinical studies are warranted to provide clear information on the effects of adjuvant radiation in meningioma treatment.

Major complications from radiotherapy following treatment for atypical meningiomas

OBJECTIVEComplications from radiotherapy (RT), in a primary or adjuvant setting, have overall been described as uncommon, with few detailed descriptions of major complications. The authors present two cases involving significant complications and their management in their review of patients undergoing RT for treatment of atypical meningioma.METHODSThe authors conducted a retrospective review of all patients with pathologically confirmed atypical meningioma (WHO grade II) treated with primary or adjuvant RT from February 2011 through February 2019. They identified two patients with long-term, grade 3 toxicity. The cases of these patients are described in detail.RESULTSTwo patients had major complications associated with postoperative RT. Patients 1 and 2 both were treated with postoperative RT for pathologically confirmed atypical meningioma. Patient 1 experienced worsening behavioral changes, cognitive decline, and hydrocephalus following treatment. This required cerebrospinal fluid diversion. Patient 2 developed radiation necrosis with mass effect and cognitive decline. Neither patient returned to his/her initial post-RT status after steroid therapy, and each remained in need of supportive care. Both patients remained free of tumor progression at 52 and 38 months following treatment.CONCLUSIONSThe postoperative management of patients with atypical meningioma continues to be defined, with questions remaining regarding timing of RT, dose, target delineation, and fractionation. Both of the patients in this study received fractionated RT, which included a greater volume of normal brain than more focal treatment options such as would be required by stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS). Further research is needed to compare SRS and fractionated RT for the management of patients with grade II meningiomas. The more focused nature of SRS may make this a preferred option in certain cases of focal recurrence.

Endoscopic transorbital and endonasal approach for trigeminal schwannomas: a retrospective multicenter analysis (KOSEN-005)

OBJECTIVE

Trigeminal schwannomas are rare neoplasms with an incidence of less than 1% that require a comprehensive surgical strategy. These tumors can occur anywhere along the path of the trigeminal nerve, capable of extending intradurally into the middle and posterior fossae, and extracranially into the orbital, pterygopalatine, and infratemporal fossa. Recent advancements in endoscopic surgery have suggested a more minimally invasive and direct route for tumors in and around Meckel's cave, including the endoscopic endonasal approach (EEA) and endoscopic transorbital superior eyelid approach (ETOA). The authors assess the feasibility and outcomes of EEA and ETOA for trigeminal schwannomas.

METHODS

A retrospective multicenter analysis was performed on 25 patients who underwent endoscopic surgical treatment for trigeminal schwannomas between September 2011 and February 2019. Thirteen patients (52%) underwent EEA and 12 (48%) had ETOA, one of whom underwent a combined approach with retrosigmoid craniotomy. The extent of resection, clinical outcome, and surgical morbidity were analyzed to evaluate the feasibility and selection of surgical approach between EEA and ETOA based on predominant location of trigeminal schwannomas.

RESULTS

According to predominant tumor location, 9 patients (36%) had middle fossa tumors (Samii type A), 8 patients (32%) had dumbbell-shaped tumors located in the middle and posterior cranial fossae (Samii type C), and another 8 patients (32%) had extracranial tumors (Samii type D). Gross-total resection (GTR, n = 12) and near-total resection (NTR, n = 7) were achieved in 19 patients (76%). The GTR/NTR rates were 81.8% for ETOA and 69.2% for EEA. The GTR/NTR rates of ETOA and EEA according to the classifications were 100% and 50% for tumors confined to the middle cranial fossa, 75% and 33% for dumbbell-shaped tumors located in the middle and posterior cranial fossae, and 50% and 100% for extracranial tumors. There were no postoperative CSF leaks. The most common preoperative symptom was trigeminal sensory dysfunction, which improved in 15 of 21 patients (71.4%). Three patients experienced new postoperative complications such as vasospasm (n = 1), wound infection (n = 1), and medial gaze palsy (n = 1).

CONCLUSIONS

ETOA provides adequate access and resectability for trigeminal schwannomas limited in the middle fossa or dumbbell-shaped tumors located in the middle and posterior fossae, as does EEA for extracranial tumors. Tumors predominantly involving the posterior fossa still remain a challenge in endoscopic surgery.

Risk of tumor recurrence in intracranial meningiomas: comparative analyses of the predictive value of the postoperative tumor volume and the Simpson classification

OBJECTIVE

In meningiomas, the Simpson grading system is applied to estimate the risk of postoperative recurrence, but might suffer from bias and limited overview of the resection cavity. In contrast, the value of the postoperative tumor volume as an objective predictor of recurrence is largely unexplored. The objective of this study was to compare the predictive value of residual tumor volume with the intraoperatively assessed extent of resection (EOR).

METHODS

The Simpson grade was determined in 939 patients after surgery for initially diagnosed intracranial meningioma. Tumor volume was measured on initial postoperative MRI within 6 months after surgery. Correlation between both variables and recurrence was compared using a tree-structured Cox regression model.

RESULTS

Recurrence correlated with Simpson grading (p = 0.003). In 423 patients (45%) with available imaging, residual tumor volume covered a broad range (0-78.5 cm3). MRI revealed tumor remnants in 8% after gross-total resection (Simpson grade I-III, range 0.12-33.5 cm3) with a Cohen's kappa coefficient of 0.7153. Postoperative tumor volume was correlated with recurrence in univariate analysis (HR 1.05 per cm3, 95% CI 1.02-1.08 per cm3, p < 0.001). A tree-structured Cox regression model revealed any postoperative tumor volume > 0 cm3 as a critical cutoff value for the prediction of relapse. Multivariate analysis confirmed the postoperative tumor volume (HR 1.05, p < 0.001) but not the Simpson grading (p = 0.398) as a predictor for recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

EOR according to Simpson grading was overrated in 8% of tumors compared to postoperative imaging. Because the predictive value of postoperative imaging is superior to the Simpson grade, any residual tumor should be carefully considered during postoperative care of meningioma patients.

Assessing the surgical outcome of the "chopsticks" technique in endoscopic transsphenoidal adenoma surgery

OBJECTIVE

The "chopsticks" technique is a 3-instrument, 2-hand mononostril technique that has been recently introduced in endoscopic neurosurgery. It allows a dynamic surgical view controlled by one surgeon only while keeping bimanual dissection. Being a mononostril approach, it requires manipulation of the mucosa of one nasal cavity only. The rationale of the technique is to reduce nasal morbidity without compromising surgical results and complication rates. There are, however, no data available on its results in endoscopic surgery (transsphenoidal surgery [TSS]) for pituitary adenoma.

METHODS

The authors performed a cohort analysis of prospectively collected data on 144 patients (156 operations) undergoing TSS using the chopsticks technique with 3T intraoperative MRI. All patients had at least 3 months of postoperative neurosurgical, endocrinological, and rhinological follow-up (Sino-Nasal Outcome Test-20 [SNOT-20] and Sniffin' Sticks). The surgical technique is described, and the achieved gross-total resection (GTR) and extent of resection (EOR) together with patients' clinical outcomes and complications are descriptively reported.

RESULTS

On 3-month postoperative MRI, GTR was achieved in 71.2% of patients with a mean EOR of 96.7%. GTR was the surgical goal in 122 of 156 cases and was achieved in 106 of 122 (86.9%), with a mean EOR of 98.7% (median 100%, range 49%-100%). There was no surgical mortality. At a median follow-up of 15 months (range 3-70 months), there was 1 permanent neurological deficit. As of the last available follow-up, 11.5% of patients had a new pituitary single-axis deficit, whereas 26.3% had improvement in endocrinological function. Three patients had new postoperative hyposmia. One patient had severe impairment of sinonasal function (SNOT-20 score > 40). The operation resulted in endocrine remission in 81.1% of patients with secreting adenomas.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that the chopsticks technique confers resection and morbidity results that compare favorably with literature reports of TSS. This technique permits a single surgeon to perform effective endoscopic bimanual dissection through a single nostril, reducing manipulation of healthy tissue and thereby possibly minimizing surgical morbidity.

Improved survival of glioblastoma patients treated at academic and high-volume facilities: a hospital-based study from the National Cancer Database

OBJECTIVE

The present study was designed to explore the association between facility type (academic center [AC] vs non-AC), facility volume (high-volume facility [HVF] vs low-volume facility [LVF]), and outcomes of glioblastoma (GBM) treatment.

METHODS

Based on the National Cancer Database (NCDB), GBM patients were categorized by treatment facility type (non-AC vs AC) and volume [4 categories (G1-G4): < 5.0, 5.0-14.9, 15.0-24.9, and ≥ 25.0, cases/year]. HVF was defined based on the 90th percentile of annual GBM cases (≥ 15.0 cases/year). Outcomes include overall survival (OS), the receipt of surgery and adjuvant therapies, 30-day readmission/mortality, 90-day mortality, and prolonged length of inpatient hospital stay (LOS). Kaplan-Meier methods and accelerated failure time (AFT) models were applied for survival analysis, and multivariable logistic regression models were performed to compare differences in the receipt of treatment and related short-term outcomes by facility type and volume.

RESULTS

A total of 40,256 GBM patients diagnosed between 2004 and 2014 were included. Patients treated at an AC & HVF experienced the longest survival (median OS: 13.3, 11.8, 11.1, and 10.3 months; time ratio [TR]: 1.00 [Ref.], 0.96, 0.92, and 0.89; for AC & HVF, AC & LVF, non-AC & HVF, and non-AC & LVF, respectively), regardless of care transition/treatment referral. Tumor resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy were most frequently utilized in AC & HVF. Prolonged LOS, 30-day readmission, and 90-day mortality were decreased by 20%, 22%, and 16% (p ≤ 0.001), respectively, at AC & HVF.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence of superior outcomes when GBM patients are treated at AC and HVF. Standardization of health care across facility type and/or volume and comprehensive neuro-oncological care should be a potential goal in the management of GBM patients.

Prediction of recurrence in solid nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenomas: additional benefits of diffusion-weighted MR imaging

OBJECTIVE

A subset of benign, nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenomas (NFMAs) has been shown to undergo early progression/recurrence (P/R) during the first years after surgical resection. The aim of this study was to determine preoperative MR imaging features for the prediction of P/R in benign solid NFMAs, with emphasis on apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values.

METHODS

We retrospectively investigated the preoperative MR imaging features for the prediction of P/R in benign solid NFMAs. Only the patients who had undergone preoperative MRI and postoperative MRI follow-ups for more than 1 year (at least every 6-12 months) were included. From November 2010 to December 2016, a total of 30 patients diagnosed with benign solid NFMAs were included (median follow-up time 45 months), and 19 (63.3%) patients had P/R (median time to P/R 24 months).

RESULTS

Benign solid NFMAs with cavernous sinus invasion, failed chiasmatic decompression, large tumor height and tumor volume, high diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) signal, and lower ADC values/ratios were significantly associated with P/R (p < 0.05). The cutoff points of ADC value and ADC ratio for prediction of P/R are 0.77 × 10-3 mm2/sec and 1.01, respectively, with area under the curve (AUC) values (0.9 and 0.91) (p < 0.01). In multivariate Cox proportional hazards analysis, low ADC value (< 0.77 × 10-3 mm2/sec) is a high-risk factor of P/R (p < 0.05) with a hazard ratio of 14.07.

CONCLUSIONS

Benign solid NFMAs with low ADC values/ratios are at a significantly increased risk of P/R, and aggressive treatments accompanied by close follow-up with imaging studies should be considered.

Transcortical insular glioma resection: clinical outcome and predictors

OBJECTIVE

Insular lobe gliomas continue to challenge neurosurgeons due to their complex anatomical position. Transcortical and transsylvian corridors remain the primary approaches for reaching the insula, but the adoption of one technique over the other remains controversial. The authors analyzed the transcortical approach of resecting insular gliomas in the context of patient tumor location based on the Berger-Sinai classification, achievable extents of resection (EORs), overall survival (OS), and postsurgical neurological outcome.

METHODS

The authors studied 255 consecutive cases of insular gliomas that underwent transcortical tumor resection in their division. Tumor molecular pathology, location, EOR, postoperative neurological outcome for each insular zone, and the accompanying OS were incorporated into the analysis to determine the value of this surgical approach.

RESULTS

Lower-grade insular gliomas (LGGs) were more prevalent (63.14%). Regarding location, giant tumors (involving all insular zones) were most prevalent (58.82%) followed by zone I+IV (anterior) tumors (20.39%). In LGGs, tumor location was an independent predictor of survival (p = 0.003), with giant tumors demonstrating shortest patient survival (p = 0.003). Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) mutation was more likely to be associated with giant tumors (p < 0.001) than focal tumors located in a regional zone. EOR correlated with survival in both LGG (p = 0.001) and higher-grade glioma (HGG) patients (p = 0.008). The highest EORs were achieved in anterior-zone LGGs (p = 0.024). In terms of developing postoperative neurological deficits, patients with giant tumors were more susceptible (p = 0.038). Postoperative transient neurological deficit was recorded in 12.79%, and permanent deficit in 15.70% of patients. Patients who developed either transient or permanent postsurgical neurological deficits exhibited poorer survival (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The transcortical surgical approach can achieve maximal tumor resection in all insular zones. In addition, the incorporation of adjunct technologies such as multimodal brain imaging and mapping of cortical and subcortical eloquent brain regions into the transcortical approach favors postoperative neurological outcomes, and prolongs patient survival.

Setup presentation and clinical outcome analysis of treating highly language-eloquent gliomas via preoperative navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation and tractography

OBJECTIVE Awake surgery combined with intraoperative direct electrical stimulation (DES) and intraoperative neuromonitoring (IONM) is considered the gold standard for the resection of highly language-eloquent brain tumors. Different modalities, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or magnetoencephalography (MEG), are commonly added as adjuncts for preoperative language mapping but have been shown to have relevant limitations. Thus, this study presents a novel multimodal setup consisting of preoperative navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS) and nTMS-based diffusion tensor imaging fiber tracking (DTI FT) as an adjunct to awake surgery. METHODS Sixty consecutive patients (63.3% men, mean age 47.6 ± 13.3 years) suffering from highly language-eloquent left-hemispheric low- or high-grade glioma underwent preoperative nTMS language mapping and nTMS-based DTI FT, followed by awake surgery for tumor resection. Both nTMS language mapping and DTI FT data were available for resection planning and intraoperative guidance. Clinical outcome parameters, including craniotomy size, extent of resection (EOR), language deficits at different time points, Karnofsky Performance Scale (KPS) score, duration of surgery, and inpatient stay, were assessed. RESULTS According to postoperative evaluation, 28.3% of patients showed tumor residuals, whereas new surgery-related permanent language deficits occurred in 8.3% of patients. KPS scores remained unchanged (median preoperative score 90, median follow-up score 90). CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to present a clinical outcome analysis of this very modern approach, which is increasingly applied in neurooncological centers worldwide. Although human language function is a highly complex and dynamic cortico-subcortical network, the presented approach offers excellent functional and oncological outcomes in patients undergoing surgery of lesions affecting this network.

Intramedullary spinal cord ependymoma and astrocytoma: intraoperative frozen-section diagnosis, extent of resection, and outcomes

OBJECTIVEThe intraoperative differentiation of ependymomas from astrocytomas is important because neurosurgical strategies differ between these two tumor groups. Previous studies have reported that the diagnostic accuracy of intraoperative frozen sections of intracranial central nervous system (CNS) tumors is higher than 83%-97%, whereas that for spinal intramedullary tumors remains unknown. Herein, authors tested the hypothesis that intraoperative frozen-section diagnosis is the gold standard for a differential diagnosis of intramedullary spinal cord tumors.METHODSThe clinical characteristics, intraoperative histological diagnosis from frozen sections, extent of tumor resection, progression-free survival (PFS), and overall survival (OS) of 49 cases of intramedullary spinal cord ependymomas (n = 32) and astrocytomas (n = 17) were retrospectively evaluated.RESULTSThe frozen-section diagnosis and final diagnosis with permanent sections agreed in 23 (72%) of 32 cases of ependymoma. Of the 9 cases of ependymoma in which the frozen-section diagnosis disagreed with the final diagnosis, 4 were incorrectly diagnosed as astrocytoma and the other 5 cases had a nonspecific diagnosis, such as glioma. Nonetheless, gross-total resection was achieved in 6 of these 9 cases given the presence of a dissection plane. The frozen-section diagnosis and final diagnosis agreed in 12 (71%) of 17 cases of astrocytoma. Of the 5 cases of astrocytoma in which the frozen-section diagnosis disagreed with the final diagnosis, 1 was incorrectly diagnosed as ependymoma and the other 4 had a nonspecific diagnosis. Gross-total resection was achieved in only 1 of these 5 cases.A relationship between the size of tumor specimens and the diagnostic accuracy of frozen sections was not observed. Ependymal rosettes and perivascular pseudorosettes were observed in 30% and 57% of ependymomas, respectively, but were absent in astrocytomas.Progression-free survival and OS were both significantly longer in cases of ependymoma than in cases of astrocytoma (p < 0.001). Gross-total resection was achieved in 69% of ependymomas and was associated with longer PFS (p = 0.041). In the astrocytoma group, gross-total resection was achieved in only 12% and there was no relationship between extent of resection and OS. Tumor grades tended to correlate with OS in astrocytomas (p = 0.079).CONCLUSIONSThe diagnostic accuracy of intraoperative frozen sections was lower for intramedullary spinal cord ependymomas and astrocytomas in the present study than that for intracranial CNS tumors reported on in the literature. Surgical strategies need to be selected based on multiple factors, such as clinical characteristics, preoperative imaging, frozen-section diagnosis, and intraoperative findings of the tumor plane.

Facial nerve outcome and extent of resection in cystic versus solid vestibular schwannomas in radiosurgery era

OBJECTIVE Cystic vestibular schwannomas (CVSs) are a subgroup of vestibular schwannomas (VSs) that are reported to be associated with unpredictable clinical behavior and unfavorable postoperative outcomes. The authors aimed to review their experience with microsurgical treatment of CVSs in terms of extent of resection and postoperative facial nerve (FN) function and compare these outcomes with those of their solid counterparts. METHODS Two hundred-eleven VS patients were treated surgically between 2006 and 2017. Tumors were defined as cystic when preoperative neuroimaging demonstrated cyst formation that was confirmed by intraoperative findings. Solid VS (SVSs) with similar classes were used for comparison. Clinical data of the patients were reviewed retrospectively, including clinical notes and images, as well as operative, pathology, and neuroradiology reports. RESULTS Thirty-two patients (20 males and 12 females) with a mean age of 52.2 years (range 17-77 years) underwent microsurgical resection of 33 CVSs (mean size 3.6 cm, range 1.5-5 cm). Forty-nine patients (26 males and 23 females) with a mean age of 49.9 years (range 21-75 years) underwent microsurgical resection of 49 SVSs (mean size 3 cm, range 2-4.5 cm). All operations were performed via either a retrosigmoid or a translabyrinthine approach. Gross-total resection was achieved in 30 cases in the CVS group (90.9%) and 37 in the SVS group (75.5%). The main reason for subtotal and near-total resection was adherence of the tumor to the brainstem and/or FN in both groups. None of the patients with subtotal or near-total resection in the CVS group demonstrated symptomatic regrowth of the tumor during the mean follow-up period of 41.6 months (range 18-82 months). The FN was anatomically preserved in all patients in both groups. Good FN outcomes were achieved in 15 of CVS (grade I-II; 45.5%) and 35 of SVS (71.4%) surgeries at discharge. Good and fair FN functions were noted in 22 (grade I-II; 81.5%) and 5 (grade III only; 18.5%) of the CVS patients, respectively, at the 1-year follow-up; none of the patients showed poor FN function. CONCLUSIONS Surgery of CVSs does not necessarily result in poor outcomes in terms of the extent of resection and FN function. Special care should be exercised to preserve anatomical continuity of the FN during surgery, since long-term FN function outcomes are much more satisfactory than short-term results. High rates of gross-total resection and good FN outcomes in our study may also suggest that microsurgery stands as the treatment of choice in select cases of large CVSs and SVSs in the era of radiosurgery.

Hypopituitarism after Gamma Knife surgery for postoperative nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma

OBJECTIVEThis study investigated long-term follow-up data on the combined pituitary function test (CPFT) in patients who had undergone transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) for nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma (NFPA) to determine the clinical parameters indicative of hypopituitarism following postoperative Gamma Knife surgery (GKS).METHODSBetween 2001 and 2015, a total of 971 NFPA patients underwent TSS, and 76 of them (7.8%) underwent postoperative GKS. All 76 patients were evaluated with a CPFT before and after GKS. The hormonal states were analyzed based on the following parameters: relevant factors before GKS (age, sex, extent of resection, pre-GKS hormonal states, time interval between TSS and GKS), GKS-related factors (tumor volume; radiation dose to tumor, pituitary stalk, and normal gland; distance between tumor and stalk), and clinical outcomes (tumor control rate, changes in hormonal states, need for hormone-related medication due to hormonal changes).RESULTSOf the 971 NFPA patients, 797 had gross-total resection (GTR) and 174 had subtotal resection (STR). Twenty-five GTR patients (3.1%) and 51 STR patients (29.3%) underwent GKS. The average follow-up period after GKS was 53.5 ± 35.5 months, and the tumor control rate was 96%. Of the 76 patients who underwent GKS, 23 were excluded due to pre-GKS panhypopituitarism (22) or loss to follow-up (1). Hypopituitarism developed in 13 (24.5%) of the remaining 53 patients after GKS. A higher incidence of post-GKS hypopituitarism occurred in the patients with normal pre-GKS hormonal states (41.7%, 10/24) than in the patients with abnormal pre-GKS hormonal states (10.3%, 3/29; p = 0.024). Target tumor volume (4.7 ± 3.9 cm3), distance between tumor and pituitary stalk (2.0 ± 2.2 mm), stalk dose (cutoffs: mean dose 7.56 Gy, maximal dose 12.3 Gy), and normal gland dose (cutoffs: maximal dose 13.9 Gy, minimal dose 5.25 Gy) were factors predictive of post-GKS hypopituitarism (p < 0.05).CONCLUSIONSThis study analyzed the long-term follow-up CPFT data on hormonal changes in NFPA patients who underwent GKS after TSS. The authors propose a cutoff value for the radiation dose to the pituitary stalk and normal gland for the prevention of post-GKS hypopituitarism.

High expression of survivin independently correlates with tumor progression and mortality in patients with skull base chordomas

OBJECTIVE

The object of this study was to clarify the expression characteristics and prognostic value of survivin in skull base chordomas.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, the authors measured the expression of survivin at the mRNA level in 81 samples from 71 patients diagnosed with skull base chordomas at their hospital in the period from July 2005 to January 2015. Clinical data collection, follow-up, and survival analyses were performed, and correlations were analyzed.

RESULTS

Of the 71 patients, 50 had primary chordomas with a mean survivin expression level of 1.09; the other 21 patients had recurrent chordomas with a mean survivin expression level of 2.57, which was 2.36 times higher than the level in the primary chordoma patients (p < 0.001, Mann-Whitney U-test). In addition, an analysis of 18 paired samples derived from 9 patients showed that the expression level of survivin was 2.62 times higher in recurrent tumors than in primary tumors (p = 0.002, paired t-test). The Spearman rank correlation coefficient method showed that the expression level of survivin was positively correlated with the mean ratio of tumor signal intensity to the signal intensity of surrounding brainstem on T1-weighted sequences (RT1; rs = 0.274, p = 0.021) and was negatively correlated with the mean ratio of tumor signal intensity to the signal intensity of surrounding brainstem on T2-weighted sequences (RT2; rs = -0.389, p = 0.001). A multivariate Cox proportional-hazards model suggested that pathology (p = 0.041), survivin expression level (p = 0.018), preoperative Karnofsky Performance Status (KPS; p = 0.012), and treatment history (p = 0.009) were independent prognostic factors for tumor progression. Survivin expression level (p = 0.008), preoperative KPS (p = 0.019), tumor diameter (p = 0.027), and intraoperative blood loss (p = 0.015) were independent prognostic factors for death.

CONCLUSIONS

Survivin expression level and preoperative KPS were independent significant prognostic factors for tumor progression and death in skull base chordoma patients. Recurrent skull base chordomas and chordomas with high RT1 and low RT2 were likely to have high survivin expression. Other independent risk factors related to tumor progression included conventional pathology and treatment history, whereas additional mortality-related risk factors included larger tumor diameter and greater intraoperative blood loss.

Resection and permanent intracranial brachytherapy using modular, biocompatible cesium-131 implants: results in 20 recurrent, previously irradiated meningiomas

OBJECTIVE

Effective treatments for recurrent, previously irradiated intracranial meningiomas are limited, and resection alone is not usually curative. Thus, the authors studied the combination of maximum safe resection and adjuvant radiation using permanent intracranial brachytherapy (R+BT) in patients with recurrent, previously irradiated aggressive meningiomas.

METHODS

Patients with recurrent, previously irradiated meningiomas were treated between June 2013 and October 2016 in a prospective single-arm trial of R+BT. Cesium-131 (Cs-131) radiation sources were embedded in modular collagen carriers positioned in the operative bed on completion of resection. The Cox proportional hazards model with this treatment as a predictive term was used to model its effect on time to local tumor progression.

RESULTS

Nineteen patients (median age 64.5 years, range 50-78 years) with 20 recurrent, previously irradiated tumors were treated. The WHO grade at R+BT was I in 4 (20%), II in 14 (70%), and III in 2 (10%) cases. The median number of prior same-site radiation courses and same-site surgeries were 1 (range 1-3) and 2 (range 1-4), respectively; the median preoperative tumor volume was 11.3 cm3 (range 0.9-92.0 cm3). The median radiation dose from BT was 63 Gy (range 54-80 Gy). At a median radiographic follow-up of 15.4 months (range 0.03-47.5 months), local failure (within 1.5 cm of the implant bed) occurred in 2 cases (10%). The median treatment-site time to progression after R+BT has not been reached; that after the most recent prior therapy was 18.3 months (range 3.9-321.9 months; HR 0.17, p = 0.02, log-rank test). The median overall survival after R+BT was 26 months, with 9 patient deaths (47% of patients). Treatment was well tolerated; 2 patients required surgery for complications, and 2 experienced radiation necrosis, which was managed medically.

CONCLUSIONS

R+BT utilizing Cs-131 sources in modular carriers represents a potentially safe and effective treatment option for recurrent, previously irradiated aggressive meningiomas.

Surgical management and long-term outcomes of intracranial giant cell tumors: a single-institution experience with a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Intracranial giant cell tumors (GCTs) are extremely rare neoplasms with dismal survival and recurrence rates. The authors aimed to confirm independent adverse factors for progression-free survival (PFS) and to propose an optimal treatment algorithm.

METHODS

The authors reviewed the clinical data of 43 cases of intracranial GCTs in their series. They also reviewed 90 cases of previously reported GCTs in the English language between 1982 and 2017 using Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, and Cochrane databases with keywords of "giant cell tumor" or "osteoclastoma" and "skull," "skull base," "temporal," "frontal," "sphenoid," or "occipital." These prior publication data were processed and used according to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. Aforementioned risk factors for the authors' series and the pooled cases were evaluated in patients not lost to follow-up (m = 38 and n = 128, respectively).

RESULTS

The authors' cohort included 28 males and 15 females with a mean age of 30.5 years. Gross-total resection (GTR) was achieved in 15 (34.9%) patients. Fifteen patients (39.5%) who did not undergo GTR received postoperative radiotherapy with a mean total dose of 54.7 ± 4.1 Gy. After a mean follow-up of 71.3 months, 12 (31.6%) patients experienced recurrence, and 4 (10.5%) died of disease. The actuarial 5-year PFS and overall survival (OS) were 68.6% and 90.0% in the authors' cohort, respectively. A multivariate Cox regression analysis verified that partial resection (HR 7.909, 95% CI 2.296-27.247, p = 0.001), no radiotherapy (HR 0.114, 95% CI 0.023-0.568, p = 0.008), and Ki-67 ≥ 10% (HR 7.816, 95% CI 1.584-38.575, p = 0.012) were independent adverse factors for PFS. Among the 90 cases in the literature, GTR was achieved in 49 (54.4%) cases. Radiotherapy was administered to 33 (36.7%) patients with a mean total dose of 47.1 ± 5.6 Gy. After a mean follow-up of 31.5 months, recurrence and death occurred in 17 (18.9%) and 5 (5.6%) cases, respectively. Among the pooled cases, the 5-year PFS and OS were 69.6% and 89.2%, respectively. A multivariate model demonstrated that partial resection (HR 4.792, 95% CI 2.909-7.893, p < 0.001) and no radiotherapy (HR 0.165, 95% CI 0.065-0.423, p < 0.001) were independent adverse factors for poor PFS.

CONCLUSIONS

GTR and radiotherapy were independent favorable factors for PFS of intracranial GCTs. Based on these findings, GTR alone or GTR plus radiotherapy was advocated as an optimal treatment; otherwise, partial resection plus radiotherapy with a dose ≥ 45 Gy, if tolerable, was a secondary alternative. Lack of randomized data of the study was stressed, and future studies with larger cohorts are necessary to verify these findings.Systematic review no.: CRD42018090878 (crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/).

Surgical outcomes of pediatric spinal cord astrocytomas: systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Pediatric spinal astrocytomas are rare spinal lesions that pose unique management challenges. Therapeutic options include gross-total resection (GTR), subtotal resection (STR), and adjuvant chemotherapy or radiation therapy. With no randomized controlled trials, the optimal management approach for children with spinal astrocytomas remains unclear. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis on pediatric spinal astrocytomas.

METHODS

The authors performed a systematic review of the PubMed/MEDLINE electronic database to investigate the impact of histological grade and extent of resection on overall survival among patients with spinal cord astrocytomas. They retained publications in which the majority of reported cases included astrocytoma histology.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine previously published studies met the eligibility criteria, totaling 578 patients with spinal cord astrocytomas. The spinal level of intramedullary spinal cord tumors was predominantly cervical (53.8%), followed by thoracic (40.8%). Overall, resection was more common than biopsy, and GTR was slightly more commonly achieved than STR (39.7% vs 37.0%). The reported rates of GTR and STR rose markedly from 1984 to 2015. Patients with high-grade astrocytomas had markedly worse 5-year overall survival than patients with low-grade tumors. Patients receiving GTR may have better 5-year overall survival than those receiving STR.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors describe trends in the management of pediatric spinal cord astrocytomas and suggest a benefit of GTR over STR for 5-year overall survival.

Intermediate-risk meningioma: initial outcomes from NRG Oncology RTOG 0539

OBJECTIVE This is the first clinical outcomes report of NRG Oncology RTOG 0539, detailing the primary endpoint, 3-year progression-free survival (PFS), compared with a predefined historical control for intermediate-risk meningioma, and secondarily evaluating overall survival (OS), local failure, and prospectively scored adverse events (AEs). METHODS NRG Oncology RTOG 0539 was a Phase II clinical trial allocating meningioma patients to 1 of 3 prognostic groups and management strategies according to WHO grade, recurrence status, and resection extent. For the intermediate-risk group (Group 2), eligible patients had either newly diagnosed WHO Grade II meningioma that had been treated with gross-total resection (GTR; Simpson Grades I-III) or recurrent WHO Grade I meningioma with any resection extent. Pathology and imaging were centrally reviewed. Patients were treated with radiation therapy (RT), either intensity modulated (IMRT) or 3D conformal (3DCRT), 54 Gy in 30 fractions. The RT target volume was defined as the tumor bed and any nodular enhancement (e.g., in patients with recurrent WHO Grade I tumors) with a minimum 8-mm and maximum 15-mm margin, depending on tumor location and setup reproducibility of the RT method. The primary endpoint was 3-year PFS. Results were compared with historical controls (3-year PFS: 70% following GTR alone and 90% with GTR + RT). AEs were scored using NCI Common Toxicity Criteria. RESULTS Fifty-six patients enrolled in the intermediate-risk group, of whom 3 were ineligible and 1 did not receive RT. Of the 52 patients who received protocol therapy, 4 withdrew without a recurrence before 3 years leaving 48 patients evaluable for the primary endpoint, 3-year PFS, which was actuarially 93.8% (p = 0.0003). Within 3 years, 3 patients experienced events affecting PFS: 1 patient with a WHO Grade II tumor died of the disease, 1 patient with a WHO Grade II tumor had disease progression but remained alive, and 1 patient with recurrent WHO Grade I meningioma died of undetermined cause without tumor progression. The 3-year actuarial local failure rate was 4.1%, and the 3-year OS rate was 96%. After 3 years, progression occurred in 2 additional patients: 1 patient with recurrent WHO Grade I meningioma and 1 patient with WHO Grade II disease; both remain alive. Among 52 evaluable patients who received protocol treatment, 36 (69.2%) had WHO Grade II tumors and underwent GTR, and 16 (30.8%) had recurrent WHO Grade I tumors. There was no significant difference in PFS between these subgroups (p = 0.52, HR 0.56, 95% CI 0.09-3.35), validating their consolidation. Of the 52 evaluable patients, 44 (84.6%) received IMRT, and 50 (96.2%) were treated per protocol or with acceptable variation. AEs (definitely, probably, or possibly related to protocol treatment) were limited to Grade 1 or 2, with no reported Grade 3 events. CONCLUSIONS This is the first clinical outcomes report from NRG Oncology RTOG 0539. Patients with intermediate-risk meningioma treated with RT had excellent 3-year PFS, with a low rate of local failure and a low risk of AEs. These results support the use of postoperative RT for newly diagnosed gross-totally resected WHO Grade II or recurrent WHO Grade I meningioma irrespective of resection extent. They also document minimal toxicity and high rates of tumor control with IMRT. Clinical trial registration no.: NCT00895622 (clinicaltrials.gov).

Therapeutic outcomes of transsphenoidal surgery in pediatric patients with craniopharyngiomas: a single-center study

OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to analyze the outcomes of transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) in a single-center clinical series of pediatric craniopharyngioma patients treated with gross-total resection (GTR). METHODS The authors retrospectively reviewed the surgical outcomes for 65 consecutive patients with childhood craniopharyngiomas (28 girls and 37 boys, mean age 9.6 years) treated with TSS (45 primary and 20 repeat surgeries) between 1990 and 2015. Tumors were classified as subdiaphragmatic or supradiaphragmatic. Demographic and clinical characteristics, including extent of resection, complications, incidence of recurrence, pre- and postoperative visual disturbance, pituitary function, and incidence of diabetes insipidus (DI), as well as new-onset obesity, were analyzed and compared between the primary surgery and repeat surgery groups. RESULTS Of the 45 patients in the primary surgery group, 26 (58%) had subdiaphragmatic tumors and 19 had supradiaphragmatic tumors. Of the 20 patients in the repeat surgery group, 9 (45%) had subdiaphragmatic tumors and 11 had supradiaphragmatic tumors. The only statistically significant difference between the 2 surgical groups was in tumor size; tumors were larger (mean maximum diameter 30 mm) in the primary surgery group than in the repeat surgery group (25 mm) (p = 0.008). GTR was accomplished in 59 (91%) of the 65 cases; the GTR rate was higher in the primary surgery group than in the repeat surgery group (98% vs 75%, p = 0.009). Among the patients who underwent GTR, 12% experienced tumor recurrence, with a median follow-up of 7.8 years, and recurrence tended to occur less frequently in primary than in repeat surgery patients (7% vs 27%, p = 0.06). Of the 45 primary surgery patients, 80% had deteriorated pituitary function and 83% developed DI, whereas 100% of the repeat surgery patients developed these conditions. Among patients with preoperative visual disturbance, vision improved in 62% but worsened in 11%. Visual improvement was more frequent in primary than in repeat surgery patients (71% vs 47%, p < 0.001), whereas visual deterioration was less frequent following primary surgery than repeat surgery (4% vs 24%, p = 0.04). Among the 57 patients without preoperative obesity, new-onset postoperative obesity was found in 9% of primary surgery patients and 21% of repeat surgery patients (p = 0.34) despite aggressive resection, suggesting that hypothalamic dysfunction was rarely associated with GTR by TSS in this series. However, obesity was found in 25% of the repeat surgery patients preoperatively due to prior transcranial surgery. Although there were no perioperative deaths, there were complications in 12 cases (18%) (6 cases of CSF leaks, 3 cases of meningitis, 2 cases of transient memory disturbance, and 1 case of hydrocephalus). Postoperative CSF leakage appeared to be more common in repeat than in primary surgery patients (20% vs 4.4%, p = 0.2). CONCLUSIONS The results of TSS for pediatric craniopharyngioma in this case series suggest that GTR should be the goal for the first surgical attempt. GTR should be achievable without serious complications, although most patients require postoperative hormonal replacement. When GTR is not possible or tumor recurrence occurs after GTR, radiosurgery is recommended to prevent tumor regrowth or progression.

Efficacy of intraoperative ultrasonography in neurosurgical tumor resection

OBJECTIVE Intraoperative ultrasonography (IOUS) is a widely accessible imaging modality that provides real-time surgical guidance with minimal identified risk or additional operative time. A recent study by the authors found a strong correlation between IOUS and postoperative MRI findings when evaluating the extent of tumor resection, suggesting that IOUS might have significant clinical implications. The objective of this study was to expand on results from the previous study in order to provide more evidence on the usage of IOUS in the determination of gross-total resection (GTR) in both adult and pediatric patients with brain tumors. METHODS This study consisted of a retrospective review of adult and pediatric neurosurgical patients who were treated at Albany Medical Center between August 2009 and March 2016 for a tumor of the brain. All patients were treated with IOUS and then underwent postoperative MRI (with and without contrast) within 1 week of surgery. RESULTS A total of 260 patients (55% of whom were males) met inclusion criteria for the study (age range 3 months to 84 years). IOUS results showed a strong association with postoperative MRI results (φ = 0.693, p < 0.001) and an 81% intended GTR rate. In cases in which GTR was pursued, 19% had false-negative results. IOUS was able to accurately identify residual tumor in 100% of subtotal resection cases where resection was stopped due to invasion of tumor into eloquent locations. Cases involving gliomas had a 75% intended GTR rate and a 25% false-negative rate. Cases involving metastatic tumors had an 87% intended GTR rate and a 13% false-negative rate. The sensitivity, specificity, negative predictive value, and positive predictive value are reported for IOUS in all included tumor pathologies, glioma cases, and metastatic tumor cases, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The use of IOUS may allow for a reliable imaging modality to achieve a more successful GTR of brain tumors in both adult and pediatric neurosurgical patients. When attempting GTR, the authors demonstrated an 81% GTR rate. The authors also report false-negative IOUS results in 19% of attempted GTR cases. The authors support the use of IOUS in both adult and pediatric CNS tumor surgery to improve surgical outcomes. However, further studies are warranted to address existing limitations with its use to further improve its efficacy and better define its role as an intraoperative imaging tool.

Does size matter? Investigating the optimal planning target volume margin for postoperative stereotactic radiosurgery to resected brain metastases

OBJECTIVE

The optimal margin size in postoperative stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for brain metastases is unknown. Herein, the authors investigated the effect of SRS planning target volume (PTV) margin on local recurrence and symptomatic radiation necrosis postoperatively.

METHODS

Records of patients who received postoperative LINAC-based SRS for brain metastases between 2006 and 2016 were reviewed and stratified based on PTV margin size (1.0 or > 1.0 mm). Patients were treated using frameless and framed SRS techniques, and both single-fraction and hypofractionated dosing were used based on lesion size. Kaplan-Meier and cumulative incidence models were used to estimate survival and intracranial outcomes, respectively. Multivariate analyses were also performed.

RESULTS

A total of 133 patients with 139 cavities were identified; 36 patients (27.1%) and 35 lesions (25.2%) were in the 1.0-mm group, and 97 patients (72.9%) and 104 lesions (74.8%) were in the > 1.0-mm group. Patient characteristics were balanced, except the 1.0-mm cohort had a better Eastern Cooperative Group Performance Status (grade 0: 36.1% vs 19.6%), higher mean number of brain metastases (1.75 vs 1.31), lower prescription isodose line (80% vs 95%), and lower median single fraction-equivalent dose (15.0 vs 17.5 Gy) (all p < 0.05). The median survival and follow-up for all patients were 15.6 months and 17.7 months, respectively. No significant difference in local recurrence was noted between the cohorts. An increased 1-year rate of symptomatic radionecrosis was seen in the larger margin group (20.9% vs 6.0%, p = 0.028). On multivariate analyses, margin size > 1.0 mm was associated with an increased risk for symptomatic radionecrosis (HR 3.07, 95% CI 1.13-8.34; p = 0.028), while multifraction SRS emerged as a protective factor for symptomatic radionecrosis (HR 0.13, 95% CI 0.02-0.76; p = 0.023).

CONCLUSIONS

Expanding the PTV margin beyond 1.0 mm is not associated with improved local recurrence but appears to increase the risk of symptomatic radionecrosis after postoperative SRS.

Histopathological features predictive of local control of atypical meningioma after surgery and adjuvant radiotherapy

OBEJECTIVE

The goal of this study was to investigate the impact of adjuvant radiotherapy (RT) on local recurrence and overall survival in patients undergoing primary resection of atypical meningioma, and to identify predictive factors to inform patient selection for adjuvant RT.

METHODS

One hundred eighty-two patients who underwent primary resection of atypical meningioma at a single institution between 1993 and 2014 were retrospectively identified. Patient, meningioma, and treatment data were extracted from the medical record and compared using the Kaplan-Meier method, log-rank tests, multivariate analysis (MVA) Cox proportional hazards models with relative risk (RR), and recursive partitioning analysis.

RESULTS

The median patient age and imaging follow-up were 57 years (interquartile range [IQR] 45–67 years) and 4.4 years (IQR 1.8–7.5 years), respectively. Gross-total resection (GTR) was achieved in 114 cases (63%), and 42 patients (23%) received adjuvant RT. On MVA, prognostic factors for death from any cause included GTR (RR 0.4, 95% CI 0.1–0.9, p = 0.02) and MIB1 labeling index (LI) ≤ 7% (RR 0.4, 95% CI 0.1–0.9, p = 0.04). Prognostic factors on MVA for local progression included GTR (RR 0.2, 95% CI 0.1–0.5, p = 0.002), adjuvant RT (RR 0.2, 95% CI 0.1–0.4, p < 0.001), MIB1 LI ≤ 7% (RR 0.2, 95% CI 0.1–0.5, p < 0.001), and a remote history of prior cranial RT (RR 5.7, 95% CI 1.3–18.8, p = 0.03). After GTR, adjuvant RT (0 of 10 meningiomas recurred, p = 0.01) and MIB1 LI ≤ 7% (RR 0.1, 95% CI 0.003–0.3, p < 0.001) were predictive for local progression on MVA. After GTR, 2.2% of meningiomas with MIB1 LI ≤ 7% recurred (1 of 45), compared with 38% with MIB1 LI > 7% (13 of 34; p < 0.001). Recursive partitioning analysis confirmed the existence of a cohort of patients at high risk of local progression after GTR without adjuvant RT, with MIB1 LI > 7%, and evidence of brain or bone invasion. After subtotal resection, adjuvant RT (RR 0.2, 95% CI 0.04–0.7, p = 0.009) and ≤ 5 mitoses per 10 hpf (RR 0.1, 95% CI 0.03–0.4, p = 0.002) were predictive on MVA for local progression.

CONCLUSIONS

Adjuvant RT improves local control of atypical meningioma irrespective of extent of resection. Although independent validation is required, the authors’ results suggest that MIB1 LI, the number of mitoses per 10 hpf, and brain or bone invasion may be useful guides to the selection of patients who are most likely to benefit from adjuvant RT after resection of atypical meningioma.

Spinal ependymoma in adults: a multicenter investigation of surgical outcome and progression-free survival

OBJECTIVE Spinal ependymomas are rare glial neoplasms. Because their incidence is low, only a few larger studies have investigated this condition. There are no clear data concerning prognosis and therapy. The aim of the study was to describe the natural history, perioperative clinical course, and local tumor control of adult patients with spinal ependymomas who were surgically treated under modern treatment standards. METHODS The authors performed a multicenter retrospective study. They identified 158 adult patients with spinal ependymomas who had received surgical treatment between January 2006 and June 2013. The authors analyzed the clinical and histological aspects of these cases to identify the predictive factors for postoperative morbidity, tumor resectability, and recurrence. RESULTS Gross-total resection (GTR) was achieved in 80% of cases. At discharge, 37% of the patients showed a neurological decline. During follow-up the majority recovered, whereas 76% showed at least preoperative status. Permanent functional deterioration remained in 2% of the patients. Transient deficits were more frequent in patients with cervically located ependymomas (p = 0.004) and in older patients (p = 0.002). Permanent deficits were independently predicted only by older age (p = 0.026). Tumor progression was observed in 15 cases. The 5-year progression-free survival (PFS) rate was 80%, and GTR (p = 0.037), WHO grade II (p = 0.009), and low Ki-67 index (p = 0.005) were independent prognostic factors for PFS. Adjuvant radiation therapy was performed in 15 cases. No statistically relevant effects of radiation therapy were observed among patients with incompletely resected ependymomas (p = 0.079). CONCLUSIONS Due to its beneficial value for PFS, GTR is important in the treatment of spinal ependymoma. Gross-total resection is feasible in the majority of cases, with acceptable rates of permanent deficits. Also, Ki-67 appears to be an important prognostic factor and should be included in a grading scheme for spinal ependymomas.

Surgical treatment of thalamic tumors in children

OBJECTIVE In the past, the outcome of surgical treatment for thalamic tumor was poor. These lesions were often considered inoperable. However, contemporary microsurgical techniques, together with improvements in neuroimaging that enable accurate presurgical planning, allow resection to be accomplished in a safer way. METHODS The medical records, imaging studies, and operative and pathology reports obtained for pediatric patients who were treated for thalamic tumors at the authors' department were reviewed. Neuronavigation and intraoperative monitoring of motor and somatosensory evoked potentials were used. Preoperative tractography, which helped to identify internal capsule fibers, was very important in selecting the surgical strategy. Postoperatively, an MRI study performed within 24 hours was used to assess the extent of tumor resection as partial (≤ 90%), subtotal (> 90%), or gross total (no residual tumor). RESULTS Since 2002, 27 children with thalamic tumors have been treated at the authors' department. There were 9 patients with unilateral thalamic tumors, 16 with thalamopeduncular tumors, and 2 with a bilateral tumor. These last 2 patients underwent endoscopic biopsy and implantation of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Thirty-nine tumor debulking procedures were performed in the remaining 25 patients. Different surgical approaches were chosen according to tumor location and displacement of the posterior limb of the internal capsule (as studied on axial T2-weighted MRI) and corticospinal tract (as studied on diffusion tensor imaging with tractography, after it became available). In 12 cases, multiple procedures were performed; in 7 cases, these were done as part of a planned multistage resection. In the remaining 5 cases, the second procedure was necessary because of late recurrence or regrowth of residual tumor. At the end of the surgical phase, of 25 patients, 15 (60%) achieved a gross-total resection, 4 (16%) achieved a subtotal resection, and 6 (24%) achieved a partial resection. Eighteen patients harbored low-grade tumors in our series. In this group, the mean follow-up was 45 months (range 4-132 months). At the end of follow-up, 1 patient was dead, 12 patients were alive with no evidence of disease, 4 patients were alive with stable disease, and 1 was lost to follow-up. All patients were independent in their daily lives. The outcome of high-grade tumors in 9 patients was very poor: 2 patients died immediately after surgery, 6 died of progressive disease, and 1 was alive with residual disease at the time of this report. CONCLUSIONS This institutional review seems to offer further evidence in favor of attempts at radical resection in pediatric patients harboring unilateral thalamic or thalamopeduncular tumors. In low-grade gliomas, radical resection in a single or staged procedure can be curative without complementary treatment. Recurrences or residual regrowth can be safely managed surgically. In high-grade tumors, the role of and opportunity for radical or partial resection remains a matter of debate.

Predictors of clinical outcome in pediatric oligodendroglioma: meta-analysis of individual patient data and multiple imputation

OBJECTIVE Oligodendroglioma is a rare primary CNS neoplasm in the pediatric population, and only a limited number of studies in the literature have characterized this entity. Existing studies are limited by small sample sizes and discrepant interstudy findings in identified prognostic factors. In the present study, the authors aimed to increase the statistical power in evaluating for potential prognostic factors of pediatric oligodendrogliomas and sought to reconcile the discrepant findings present among existing studies by performing an individual-patient-data (IPD) meta-analysis and using multiple imputation to address data not directly available from existing studies. METHODS A systematic search was performed, and all studies found to be related to pediatric oligodendrogliomas and associated outcomes were screened for inclusion. Each study was searched for specific demographic and clinical characteristics of each patient and the duration of event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS). Given that certain demographic and clinical information of each patient was not available within all studies, a multivariable imputation via chained equations model was used to impute missing data after the mechanism of missing data was determined. The primary end points of interest were hazard ratios for EFS and OS, as calculated by the Cox proportional-hazards model. Both univariate and multivariate analyses were performed. The multivariate model was adjusted for age, sex, tumor grade, mixed pathologies, extent of resection, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, tumor location, and initial presentation. A p value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS A systematic search identified 24 studies with both time-to-event and IPD characteristics available, and a total of 237 individual cases were available for analysis. A median of 19.4% of the values among clinical, demographic, and outcome variables in the compiled 237 cases were missing. Multivariate Cox regression analysis revealed subtotal resection (p = 0.007 [EFS] and 0.043 [OS]), initial presentation of headache (p = 0.006 [EFS] and 0.004 [OS]), mixed pathologies (p = 0.005 [EFS] and 0.049 [OS]), and location of the tumor in the parietal lobe (p = 0.044 [EFS] and 0.030 [OS]) to be significant predictors of tumor progression or recurrence and death. CONCLUSIONS The use of IPD meta-analysis provides a valuable means for increasing statistical power in investigations of disease entities with a very low incidence. Missing data are common in research, and multiple imputation is a flexible and valid approach for addressing this issue, when it is used conscientiously. Undergoing subtotal resection, having a parietal tumor, having tumors with mixed pathologies, and suffering headaches at the time of diagnosis portended a poorer prognosis in pediatric patients with oligodendroglioma.

Suprasellar and recurrent pediatric craniopharyngiomas: expanding indications for the extended endoscopic transsphenoidal approach

OBJECTIVE The expanded endonasal endoscopic transsphenoidal approach has become increasingly used for craniopharyngioma surgery in the pediatric population, but questions still persist regarding its utility in younger children, in recurrent and irradiated tumors, and in masses primarily located in the suprasellar region. The narrow corridor, incomplete pneumatization, and fear of hypothalamic injury have traditionally relegated this approach to application in older children with mostly cystic craniopharyngiomas centered in the sella. The authors present a series of consecutive pediatric patients in whom the endonasal endoscopic approach was used to remove craniopharyngiomas from patients of varied ages, regardless of the location of the tumor and previous treatments or surgeries, to ascertain if the traditional concerns about limitations of this approach are worth reevaluating METHODS Eleven consecutive pediatric patients (age ≤ 18 years) underwent surgery via an endoscopic transsphenoidal approach at NewYork-Presbyterian/Weill Cornell Medical Center from 2007 to 2016. The authors recorded the location, consistency, and size of the lesion, assessed for hypothalamic invasion radiographically, calculated skull base measurements, and assessed parameters such as extent of resection, visual function, endocrinological function, weight gain, and return-to-school status. RESULTS The average age at the time of surgery was 7.9 years (range 4-17 years) and the tumor sizes ranged from 1.3 to 41.7 cm³. Five cases were purely suprasellar, 5 had solid components, 4 were reoperations, and 5 had a conchal sphenoid aeration. Nevertheless, gross-total resection was achieved in 45% of the patients and 50% of those in whom it was the goal of surgery, without any correlation with the location, tumor consistency, or the age of the patient. Near-total resection, subtotal resection, or biopsy was performed intentionally in the remaining patients to avoid hypothalamic injury. Anterior pituitary dysfunction occurred in 81.8% of the patients, and 63.3% developed diabetes insipidus . Two patients (18%) had a greater than 9% increase in body mass index. Visual function was stable or improved in 73%. All children returned to an academic environment, with 10 of them in the grade appropriate for their age. There was a single case of each of the following: CSF leak, loss of vision unilaterally, and abscess. CONCLUSIONS The endoscopic transsphenoidal approach is suitable for removing pediatric craniopharyngiomas even in young children with suprasellar tumors, conchal sphenoid sinus, recurrent tumors, and tumors with solid components. The extent of resection is dictated by intrinsic hypothalamic tumor invasiveness rather than the approach. The endoscopic transsphenoidal approach affords the ability to directly inspect the hypothalamus to determine invasion, which may help spare the patient from hypothalamic injury. Irrespective of approach, the rates of postoperative endocrinopathy remain high and the learning curve for the approach to a relatively rare tumor is steep.

Is the chiasm-pituitary corridor size important for achieving gross-total resection during endonasal endoscopic resection of craniopharyngiomas?

OBJECTIVE Craniopharyngiomas arise from the pituitary stalk, and in adults they are generally located posterior to the chiasm extending up into the third ventricle. The extended endonasal approach (EEA) can provide an ideal corridor between the bottom of the optic chiasm and the top of the pituitary gland (chiasm-pituitary corridor [CPC]) for their removal. A narrow CPC in patients with a prefixed chiasm and a large tumor extending up and behind the chiasm has been considered a contraindication to EEA, with a high risk of visual deterioration and subtotal resection. METHODS A database of all patients treated in the authors' center (Weill Cornell Medical College, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital) between July 2004 and August 2016 was reviewed. Patients with craniopharyngiomas who underwent EEA with the goal of gross-total resection (GTR) were included in the study. Patients with postfixed chiasm or limited available preoperative imaging were excluded. Using preoperative contrast-enhanced T1-weighted sagittal midline MR images, the authors calculated the CPC as well as the distance from the chiasm to the top of the tumor (CTOT). From these numbers, they calculated a ratio of the CPC to the CTOT as a measure of difficulty in removing the tumors through the EEA and called this ratio the corridor index (CI). The relationship between the CI and the ability to achieve GTR and visual outcome were measured. RESULTS Thirty-four patients were included in the study. The mean CPC was 10.1 mm (range 5.2-19.1 mm). The mean CTOT was 12.8 mm (range 0-28.3 mm). The median CI was 0.8; the CI ranged from 0.4 to infinity (for tumors with a CTOT of 0). Thirty-two patients had GTR (94.1%) and 2 had subtotal resection. The CPC value had no relationship with our ability to achieve GTR and no effect on visual or endocrine outcome. CONCLUSIONS EEA for craniopharyngioma is generally considered the first-line surgical approach. Although a narrow corridor between the top of the pituitary gland and the bottom of the chiasm may seem to be a relative contraindication to surgery for larger tumors, the authors' data do not bear this out. EEA appears to be a successful technique for the majority of midline craniopharyngiomas.

The surgical treatment of metastatic spine tumors within the intramedullary compartment

OBJECTIVE Metastasis to the spinal cord is rare, and optimal management of this disease is unclear. The authors investigated this issue by analyzing the results of surgical treatment of spinal intramedullary metastasis (IM) at a major cancer center. METHODS The authors retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 13 patients who underwent surgery for IM. Patients had renal cell carcinoma (n = 4), breast carcinoma (n = 3), melanoma (n = 2), non-small cell lung cancer (n = 1), sarcoma (n = 1), adenoid cystic carcinoma (n = 1), and cervical cancer (n = 1). Cerebrospinal fluid was collected before surgery in 11 patients, and was negative for malignant cells, as was MRI of the neuraxis. Eleven patients presented with neurological function equivalent to Frankel Grade D. RESULTS Radiographic gross-total resection was achieved in 9 patients, and tumor eventually recurred locally in 3 of those 9 (33%). Leptomeningeal disease was diagnosed in 4 patients after surgery. In the immediate postoperative period, neurological function in 6 patients deteriorated to Frankel Grade C. At 2 months, only 2 patients remained at Grade C, 8 were at Grade D, and 1 had improved to Grade E. One patient developed postoperative hematoma resulting in Frankel Grade A. Radiotherapy was delivered in 8 patients postoperatively. The median survival after spine surgery was 6.5 months. Three patients are still living. CONCLUSIONS Surgery was performed as a last option to preserve neurological function in patients with IM. In most patients, neurological function returned during the immediate postoperative period and was preserved for the patients' remaining lifetime. The data suggest that surgery can be effective in preventing further decline in selected patients with progressive neurological deficit.

Endoscopic endonasal approach for craniopharyngioma: the importance of the relationship between pituitary stalk and tumor

OBJECTIVE The endoscopic endonasal approach (EEA) is commonly used for the treatment of craniopharyngioma; therefore, it is essential to analyze outcomes in order to understand the benefits and drawbacks. The goal of this paper was to evaluate the clinical features and outcomes associated with this treatment approach. METHODS From July 2010 to March 2016, 82 adult craniopharyngioma patients underwent an EEA at the authors' institution. Of these cases, intraoperative records and immediate postoperative MR images were available for 68 patients. The patients underwent systemized endocrinological evaluation. Eighteen of 68 patients who underwent EEA for recurrence or regrowth of residual lesions after previous surgical management were excluded in the analysis of the anatomical tumor classification. The authors retrospectively analyzed preoperative clinical features and previous anatomical classifications, focusing on the relationship of the pituitary stalk and tumor, to determine predictive factors for the clinical outcome, such as the extent of resection, visual function, endocrinological function, recurrence rate, and complications. RESULTS The mean tumor size was 2.5 cm (3.1 cm for primary tumors and 1.9 cm for recurrent lesions). Gross-total resection (GTR) was achieved in 62 (91.1%) patients (48 [96.0%] patients with primary tumors and 14 [77.8%] patients with recurrent tumors). The rate of GTR was higher in the primary group than in the group with recurrence (p = 0.038). The overall pre- and postoperative visual impairment scale (VIS) scores were 40.8 and 22.1, respectively (50.9 and 14.3 in the primary group and 30.7 and 29.9 in patients with recurrence, respectively). The improvement rate in VIS score was higher in the primary group than in the recurrent group (p = 0.001). Endocrinological function was improved in 4 patients (5.9%) and deteriorated in 32 of 68 patients (47.1%). Tumor invasion into the center of the pituitary stalk affected the postoperative outcomes most significantly. Cognitive dysfunction was observed in 22 patients before surgery and improved in 20 patients (90.9%) after surgery. Hydrocephalus was found in 7 patients and resolved after surgery in all cases. CSF leakage occurred in 2 (2.9%) of 68 patients and was repaired by revision surgery in both patients. Ten patients without CSF leakage also received antibiotics for the treatment of meningitis. The infection rate was higher in the recurrent group. Postoperative endocrinological evaluation showed no deficits in 12 patients and panhypopituitarism in 55 patients. The remaining patient had growth hormone deficiency. Forty-three patients had new-onset diabetes insipidus, and 1 patient had persistent diabetes insipidus after surgery. There were 2 (2.9%) cases of recurrence during the mean 30.7-month follow-up period; one patient underwent radiosurgery and the other underwent reoperation. CONCLUSIONS The EEA resulted in excellent surgical outcomes and acceptable morbidity rates, regardless of the anatomical location of the tumor. Invasion of the craniopharyngioma into the center of the pituitary stalk has strong predictive power for postoperative endocrinological outcome.

Surgical intervention for pituitary apoplexy: an analysis of functional outcomes

OBJECTIVE Pituitary apoplexy is a clinical syndrome consisting of neurological and endocrine abnormalities secondary to hemorrhage or ischemia of an underlying pituitary adenoma. The authors investigated whether there was a significant difference in neurological, endocrine, and nonneuroendocrine outcomes for patients with pituitary apoplexy, based on the time between symptom onset and surgical intervention. METHODS The authors retrospectively analyzed the medical records of 32 patients who had presented to their institution with acute pituitary apoplexy and subsequently undergone endonasal transsphenoidal resection in the period from 2003 to 2014. All patients had undergone preoperative MRI demonstrating evidence of apoplexy in the form of intratumoral hemorrhage, ischemia, and necrosis. Neurological deficits, partial or complete endocrinopathy, and nonneuroendocrine abnormalities were analyzed both pre- and postoperatively. RESULTS Preoperatively, neurological deficits including visual loss and cranial nerve palsies were found in 31 (97%) of the 32 patients, endocrinopathy in the form of partial or panhypopituitarism was seen in 28 patients (88%), and nonneuroendocrine signs and symptoms were seen in 32 patients (100%). Thirteen patients (41%) underwent surgery within 72 hours of symptom onset ("early"), whereas 19 patients (59%) underwent surgery more than 72 hours from symptom onset ("delayed"). Early versus delayed resection did not appear to significantly improve visual deficits, total visual loss, resolution of oculomotor palsy, recovery from hypopituitarism, or nonneuroendocrine signs and symptoms such as headache and encephalopathy. Overall, visual improvement was seen in 77% of patients, complete restoration of normal vision in 38% of patients, and resolution of preoperative oculomotor palsies in 81% of patients. Only 6 (21%) of 28 patients showed evidence of partial hormone recovery following preoperative hypopituitarism. An absence of benefit for early surgery held true even when considering time to surgery from symptom onset as a continuous variable. CONCLUSIONS Neurological deficits such as visual loss and cranial neuropathies show moderate improvement following surgical decompression, as does preoperative hypopituitarism. The timing of surgical intervention relative to the onset of symptoms does not appear to significantly affect the resolution of neurological or endocrinological deficits.

Management of peripheral nerve sheath tumors: 17 years of experience at Toronto Western Hospital

OBJECTIVE A surgical series of 201 benign and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNSTs) was assessed to characterize the anatomical and clinical presentation of tumors and identify predictors of neurological outcome, recurrence, and extent of resection. METHODS All surgically treated PNSTs from the Division of Neurosurgery at Toronto Western Hospital from 1993 to 2010 were reviewed retrospectively. Data were collected on patient demographics, clinical presentation, surgical technique, extent of resection, postoperative neurological outcomes, and recurrence. RESULTS One hundred seventy-five patients with 201 tumors had adequate follow-up for analysis. There were 182 benign and 19 malignant PNSTs. Of the benign lesions, 133 were schwannomas, 21 of which were associated with a diagnosis of schwannomatosis. There were 49 neurofibromas, and 26 were associated with neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1). Patients presenting with schwannomas were significantly older than those with neurofibromas. Schwannomas were more readily resected than neurofibromas, with the extent of resection of the former influenced by tumor location. Patients with benign PNSTs typically presented with a painful mass and less frequently with motor deficits. The likelihood of worsened postoperative motor function was decreased in patients with fully resected tumors or preoperative deficits. Recurrence of schwannomas and neurofibromas were seen more frequently in patients diagnosed with NF3 and NF1, respectively. Subtotal resection was associated with the increased recurrence of all benign lesions. CONCLUSIONS Outcomes following resection of benign PNSTs depend on tumor histopathology, tumor location, and genetic predisposition syndrome. Gross-total resection should be attempted for benign lesions where possible. The management of malignant PNSTs remains challenging, requiring a multimodal approach.

Clinical, radiological, and histological features and treatment outcomes of supratentorial extraventricular ependymoma: 14 cases from a single center

OBJECTIVE Reports on supratentorial extraventricular ependymoma (STE) are relatively rare. The object of this study was to analyze the clinical, radiological, and histological features and treatment outcomes of 14 patients with STE. METHODS Overall, 227 patients with ependymoma underwent surgical treatment in the authors' department between January 2010 and June 2015; 14 of these patients had STE. Data on clinical presentation, radiological studies, histopathological findings, surgical strategies, and treatment outcomes in these 14 cases were retrospectively analyzed. RESULTS The patients consisted of 6 women and 8 men (sex ratio 0.75). Mean age at diagnosis was 24.5 ± 13.5 years (range 3-48 years). Tumors were predominantly located in the frontal and temporal lobes (5 and 4 cases, respectively). Typical radiological features were mild to moderate heterogeneous tumor enhancements on contrast-enhanced MRI. Other radiological features included well-circumscribed, "popcorn" enhancement and no distinct adjoining brain edema. Gross-total resection was achieved in 12 patients, while subtotal removal was performed in 2. Radiotherapy was administered in 7 patients after surgery. Seven tumors were classified as WHO Grade II and the other 7 were verified as WHO Grade III. The mean follow-up period was 22.6 months (range 8-39 months). There were 3 patients with recurrence, and 2 of these patients died. CONCLUSIONS Supratentorial extraventricular ependymoma has atypical clinical presentations, various radiological features, and heterogeneous histological forms; therefore, definitive diagnosis can be difficult. Anaplastic STE shows malignant biological behavior, a higher recurrence rate, and a relatively poor prognosis. Gross-total resection with or without postoperative radiotherapy is currently the optimal treatment for STE.

Role of endoscopic transnasal surgery for skull base chondrosarcoma: a retrospective analysis of 19 cases at a single institution

OBJECTIVE Skull base chondrosarcoma is one of the most intractable tumors because of its aggressive biological behavior and involvement of the internal carotid artery and cranial nerves (CNs). One of the most accepted treatment strategies for skull base chondrosarcoma has been surgical removal of the tumor in conjunction with proactive extensive radiation therapy (RT) to the original tumor bed. However, the optimal strategy has not been determined. The goal of this study was to evaluate the early results of endoscopic transnasal surgery (ETS). METHODS The authors retrospectively analyzed 19 consecutive patients who underwent ETS at their institution since 2010. Adjuvant stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) was performed only for the small residual tumors that were not resected to avoid critical neurological complications. Histological confirmation and evaluation of the MIB-1 index was performed in all cases. The Kaplan-Meier method was used to determine the actuarial rate of tumor-free survival. RESULTS The median tumor volume and maximal diameter were 14.5 cm³ (range 1.4-88.4 cm³) and 3.8 cm (range 1.5-6.7 cm), respectively. Nine patients (47%) had intradural extension of the tumor. Gross-total resection was achieved in 15 (78.9%) of the 19 patients, without any disabling complications. In 4 patients, the surgery resulted in subtotal (n = 2, 11%) or partial (n = 2, 11%) resection because the tumors involved critical structures, including the basilar artery or the lower CNs. These 4 patients were additionally treated with SRS. The median follow-up duration was 47, 28, and 27 months after the diagnosis, ETS, and SRS, respectively. In 1 patient with an anterior skull base chondrosarcoma, the tumor relapsed in the optic canal 1 year later and was treated with a second ETS. Favorable tumor control was achieved in all other patients. The actuarial tumor control rate was 93% at 5 years. At the final follow-up, all patients were alive and able to perform independent activities of daily living without continuous neurological sequelae. CONCLUSIONS These preliminary results suggest that ETS can achieve sufficient radical tumor removal, resulting in comparative resection rates with fewer neurological complications to those in previous reports. Although the follow-up periods of these cases were relatively short, elective SRS to the small tumor remnant may be rational, achieving successful tumor control in some cases, instead of using proactive extensive RT. Thus, the addition of RT should be discussed with each patient, after due consideration of histological grading and biological behavior. To determine the efficacy of this strategy, a larger case series with a longer follow-up period is essential. However, this strategy may be able to establish evidence in the management of skull base chondrosarcoma, providing less-invasive and effective options as an initial step of treatment.

Role of electrophysiology in guiding near-total resection for preservation of facial nerve function in the surgical treatment of large vestibular schwannomas

OBJECTIVE In large vestibular schwannoma (VS) surgery, the facial nerve (FN) is at high risk of injury. Near-total resection has been advocated in the case of difficult facial nerve dissection, but the amount of residual tumor that should be left and when dissection should be stopped remain controversial factors. The objective of this study was to report FN outcome and radiological results in patients undergoing near-total VS resection guided by electromyographic supramaximal stimulation of the FN at the brainstem. METHODS This study was a retrospective analysis of a prospectively maintained database. Inclusion criteria were surgical treatment of a large VS during 2014, normal preoperative FN function, and an incomplete resection due to the strong adherence of the tumor to the FN and the loss of around 50% of the response of supramaximal stimulation of the proximal FN at 2 mA. Facial nerve function and the amount and evolution of the residual tumor were evaluated by clinical examination and by MRI at a mean of 5 days postoperatively and at 1 year postoperatively. RESULTS Twenty-five patients met the inclusion criteria and were included in the study. Good FN function (Grade I or II) was observed in 16 (64%) and 21 (84%) of the 25 patients at Day 8 and at 1 year postoperatively, respectively. At the 1-year follow-up evaluation (n = 23), 15 patients (65%) did not show growth of the residual tumor, 6 patients (26%) had regression of the residual tumor, and only 2 patients (9%) presented with tumor progression. CONCLUSIONS Near-total resection guided by electrophysiology represents a safe option in cases of difficult dissection of the facial nerve from the tumor. This seems to offer a good compromise between the goals of preserving facial nerve function and achieving maximum safe resection.

Clival chordomas: considerations after 16 years of endoscopic endonasal surgery

OBJECTIVE In the past decade, the role of the endoscopic endonasal approach (EEA) has relevantly evolved for skull base tumors. In this study, the authors review their surgical experience with using an EEA in the treatment of clival chordomas, which are deep and infiltrative skull base lesions, and they highlight the advantages and limitations of this ventral approach. METHODS All consecutive cases of chordoma treated with an EEA between 1998 and 2015 at a single institution are included in this study. Preoperative assessment consisted of neuroimaging (MRI and CT with angiography sequences) and endocrinological, neurological, and ophthalmological evaluations, which were repeated 3 months after surgery and annually thereafter. Postoperative adjuvant therapies were considered. RESULTS Sixty-five patients (male/female ratio 1:0.9) were included in this study. The median age was 48 years (range 9-80 years). Gross-total resection (GTR) was achieved in 47 cases (58.7%). On univariate analysis, primary procedures (p = 0.001), location in the superior or middle third of the clivus (p = 0.043), extradural location (p = 0.035), and histology of conventional chordomas (p = 0.013) were associated with a higher rate of GTR. The complication rate was 15.1%, and there were no perioperative deaths. Most complications did not result in permanent sequelae and included 2 CSF leaks (2.5%), 5 transient cranial nerve VI palsies (6.2%), and 2 internal carotid artery injuries (2.5%), which were treated with coil occlusion of the internal carotid artery without neurological deficits. Three patients (3.8%) presented with complications resulting in permanent neurological deficits due to a postoperative hematoma (1.2%) causing a hemiparesis, and 2 permanent ophthalmoplegias (2.5%). Seventeen patients (26.2%) have died of tumor progression over the course of follow-up (median 52 months, range 7-159 months). Based on Kaplan-Meier analysis, the survival rate was 77% at 5 years and 57% at 10 years. On multivariate analysis, the extent of tumor removal (p = 0.001) and the absence of previous treatments (p = 0.001) proved to be correlated with a longer survival rate. CONCLUSIONS The EEA was associated with a high rate of tumor removal and symptom control, with low morbidity and preservation of a good quality of life. These results allow for a satisfactory overall survival rate, particularly after GTR and for primary surgery. Considering these results, the authors believe that an EEA can be a helpful tool in chordoma surgery, achieving a good balance between as much tumor removal as possible and the preservation of an acceptable patient quality of life.

Endonasal endoscopic pituitary surgery in the elderly

OBJECTIVE Pituitary adenomas are benign, slow-growing tumors that cause symptoms either through mass effect or hormone overproduction. The decision to operate on a healthy young person is relatively straightforward. In the elderly population, however, the risks of complications may increase, rendering the decision more complex. Few studies have documented the risks of surgery using the endonasal endoscopic approach in a large number of elderly patients. The purpose of this study was to audit a single center's data regarding outcomes of purely endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal resection of pituitary adenomas in elderly patients and to compare them to the current literature. METHODS A retrospective review of a prospectively acquired database of all endonasal endoscopic surgeries done by the senior authors was queried for patients aged 60-69 years and for those aged 70 years or older. Demographic and radiographic preoperative data were reviewed. Outcomes with respect to extent of resection and complications were examined and compared with appropriate statistical tests. RESULTS A total of 135 patents were identified (81 aged 60-69 years and 54 aged 70 years or older [70+]). The average tumor diameter was slightly larger for the patients in the 70+ age group (mean [SD] 25.7 ± 9.2 mm) than for patients aged 60-69 years (23.1 ± 9.8 mm, p = 0.056). There was no significant difference in intraoperative blood loss (p > 0.99), length of stay (p = 0.22), or duration of follow-up (p = 0.21) between the 2 groups. There was a 7.4% complication rate in patients aged 60-69 years (3 nasal and 3 medical complications) and an 18.5% complication rate in patients older than 70 years (4 cranial, 3 nasal, 1 visual, and 2 medical complications; p = 0.05 overall and 0.013 for cranial complications). Cranial complications in the 70+ age category included 2 postoperative hematomas, 1 pseudoaneurysm formation, and 1 case of symptomatic subdural hygromas. CONCLUSIONS Endonasal endoscopic surgery in elderly patients is safe, but there is a graded increase in complication rates with increasing age. The decision to operate on an asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic patient in these age groups should take this increasing complication rate into account. The use of a lumbar drain or lumbar punctures should be weighed against the risk of subdural hematoma in patients with preexisting atrophy.

Solitary fibrous tumors of the spine: a pediatric case report with a comprehensive review of the literature

Solitary fibrous tumors of the spine are rare lesions. Their description in the literature is limited to case reports and small case series. While generally benign lesions, they can recur and occasionally occur as malignancies. Here the authors present the case of a 10-year-old boy, the youngest patient and first preadolescent reported thus far, with this condition. In addition, they perform a comprehensive review of all previously published cases of spinal solitary fibrous tumors.

Clinical and pathological outcomes after resection of intramedullary spinal cord tumors: a single-institution case series

OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to identify clinically relevant predictors of progression-free survival and functional outcomes in patients who underwent surgery for intramedullary spinal cord tumors (ISCTs). METHODS An institutional spinal tumor registry and billing records were reviewed to identify adult patients who underwent resection of ISCTs between 1993 and 2014. Extensive data were collected from patient charts and operative notes, including demographic information, extent of resection, tumor pathology, and functional and oncological outcomes. Survival analysis was used to determine important predictors of progression-free survival. Logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the association between an "optimal" functional outcome on the Frankel or McCormick scale at 1-year follow-up and various clinical and surgical characteristics. RESULTS The consecutive case series consisted of 63 patients (50.79% female) who underwent resection of ISCTs. The mean age of patients was 41.92 ± 14.36 years (range 17.60-75.40 years). Complete microsurgical resection, defined as no evidence of tumor on initial postoperative imaging, was achieved in 34 cases (54.84%) of the 62 patients for whom this information was available. On univariate analysis, the most significant predictor of progression-free survival was tumor histology (p = 0.0027). Patients with Grade I/II astrocytomas were more likely to have tumor progression than patients with WHO Grade II ependymomas (HR 8.03, 95% CI 2.07-31.11, p = 0.0026) and myxopapillary ependymomas (HR 8.01, 95% CI 1.44-44.34, p = 0.017). Furthermore, patients who underwent radical or subtotal resection were more likely to have tumor progression than those who underwent complete resection (HR 3.46, 95% CI 1.23-9.73, p = 0.018). Multivariate analysis revealed that tumor pathology was the only significant predictor of tumor progression. On univariate analysis, the most significant predictors of an "optimal" outcome on the Frankel scale were age (OR 0.94, 95% CI 0.89-0.98, p = 0.0062), preoperative Frankel grade (OR 4.84, 95% CI 1.33-17.63, p = 0.017), McCormick score (OR 0.22, 95% CI 0.084-0.57, p = 0.0018), and region of spinal cord (cervical vs conus: OR 0.067, 95% CI 0.012-0.38, p = 0.0023; and thoracic vs conus: OR 0.015: 95% CI 0.001-0.20, p = 0.0013). Age, tumor pathology, and region were also important predictors of 1-year McCormick scores. CONCLUSIONS Extent of tumor resection and histopathology are significant predictors of progression-free survival following resection of ISCTs. Important predictors of functional outcomes include tumor histology, region of spinal cord in which the tumor is present, age, and preoperative functional status.

Management and outcome of recurrent adult craniopharyngiomas: an analysis of 42 cases with long-term follow-up

OBJECTIVE The treatment of recurrent and residual craniopharyngiomas is challenging. In this study the authors describe their experience with these tumors and make recommendations on their management. METHODS The authors performed an observational study of adult patients (≥ 18 years) with recurrent or residual craniopharyngiomas that were managed at their tertiary center. Retrospective data were collected on demographics and clinical, imaging, and treatment characteristics from patients who had a minimum 2-year follow-up. Descriptive statistics were used and the data were analyzed. RESULTS There were 42 patients (27 male, 15 female) with a mean age of 46.3 ± 14.3 years. The average tumor size was 3.1 ± 1.1 cm. The average time to first recurrence was 3.6 ± 5.5 years (range 0.2-27 years). One in 5 patients (8/42) with residual/recurrent tumors did not require any active treatment. Of the 34 patients who underwent repeat treatment, 12 (35.3%) had surgery only (transcranial, endoscopic, or both), 9 (26.5%) underwent surgery followed by adjuvant radiation therapy (RT), and 13 (38.2%) received RT alone. Eighty-six percent (18/21) had a gross-total (n = 4) or near-total (n = 14) resection of the recurrent/residual tumors and had good local control at last follow-up. One of 5 patients (7/34) who underwent repeat treatment had further treatment for a second recurrence. The total duration of follow-up was 8.6 ± 7.1 years. The average Karnofsky Performance Scale score at last follow-up was 80 (range 40-90). There was 1 death. CONCLUSIONS Based on this experience and in the absence of guidelines, the authors recommend an individualized approach for the treatment of symptomatic or growing tumors. This study has shown that 1 in 5 patients does not require repeat treatment of their recurrent/residual disease and can be managed with a "scan and watch" approach. On the other hand, 1 in 5 patients who had repeat treatment for their recurrence in the form of surgery and/or radiation will require further additional treatment. More studies are needed to best characterize these patients and predict the natural history of this disease and response to treatment.

The learning curve in endoscopic endonasal resection of craniopharyngiomas

OBJECTIVE There is a paucity of literature regarding the learning curve associated with performing endoscopic endonasal cranial base surgery. The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent a learning curve might exist for endoscopic endonasal resection in cases of craniopharyngiomas. METHODS A retrospective review was performed for all endoscopic endonasal craniopharyngioma resections performed at Thomas Jefferson University from 2005 to 2015. To assess for a learning curve effect, patients were divided into an early cohort (2005-2009, n = 20) and a late cohort (2010-2015, n = 23). Preoperative demographics, clinical presentation, imaging characteristics, extent of resection, complications, tumor control, and visual and endocrine outcomes were obtained. Categorical variables and continuous variables were compared using a 2-sided Fisher's exact test and t-test, respectively. RESULTS Only the index operation performed at the authors' institution was included. There were no statistically significant differences between early and late cohorts in terms of patient age, sex, presenting symptoms, history of surgical or radiation treatment, tumor size or consistency, hypothalamic involvement, or histological subtype. The rate of gross-total resection (GTR) increased over time from 20% to 65% (p = 0.005), and the rate of subtotal resection decreased over time from 40% to 13% (p = 0.078). Major neurological complications, including new hydrocephalus, meningitis, carotid artery injury, or stroke, occurred in 6 patients (15%) (8 complications) in the early cohort compared with only 1 (4%) in the late cohort (p = 0.037). CSF leak decreased from 40% to 4% (p = 0.007). Discharge to home increased from 64% to 95% (p = 0.024). Visual improvement was high in both cohorts (88% [early cohort] and 81% [late cohort]). Rate of postoperative panhypopituitarism and permanent diabetes insipidus both increased from 50% to 91% (p = 0.005) and 32% to 78% (p = 0.004), which correlated with a significant increase in intentional stalk sacrifice in the late cohort (from 0% to 70%, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS High rates of near- or total resection and visual improvement can be achieved using an endoscopic endonasal approach for craniopharyngiomas. However, the authors did find evidence for a learning curve. After 20 cases, they found a significant decrease in major neurological complications and significant increases in the rates of GTR rate and discharge to home. Although there was a large decrease in the rate of postoperative CSF leak over time, this was largely attributable to the inclusion of very early cases prior to the routine use of vascularized nasoseptal flaps. There was a significant increase in new panhypopituitarism and diabetes insipidus, which is attributable to increase rates of intentional stalk sacrifice.

Prospective analysis of neuropsychological deficits following resection of benign skull base meningiomas

OBJECTIVE Resection of skull base tumors is challenging. The introduction of alternative treatment options, such as radiotherapy, has sparked discussion regarding outcome in terms of quality of life and neuropsychological deficits. So far, however, no prospective data are available on this topic. METHODS A total of 58 patients with skull base meningiomas who underwent surgery for the first time were enrolled in this prospective single-center trial. The average age of the patients was 56.4 ± 12.5 years. Seventy-nine percent of the tumors were located within the anterior skull base. Neurological examinations and neuropsychological testing were performed at 3 time points: 1 day prior to surgery (T1), 3-5 months after surgery (T2), and 9-12 months after surgery (T3). The average follow-up duration was 13.8 months. Neuropsychological assessment consisted of quality of life, depression and anxiety, verbal learning and memory, cognitive speed, attention and concentration, figural memory, and visual-motor speed. RESULTS Following surgery, 23% of patients showed transient neurological deficits and 12% showed permanent new neurological deficits with varying grades of manifestation. Postoperative quality of life, however, remained stable and was slightly improved at follow-up examinations at T3 (60.6 ± 21.5 vs 63.6 ± 24.1 points), and there was no observed effect on anxiety and depression. Long-term verbal memory, working memory, and executive functioning were slightly affected within the first months following surgery and appeared to be the most vulnerable to impairment by the tumor or the resection but were stable or improved in the majority of patients at long-term follow-up examinations after 1 year. CONCLUSIONS This report describes the first prospective study of neuropsychological outcomes following resection of skull base meningiomas and, as such, contributes to a better understanding of postoperative impairment in these patients. Despite deterioration in a minority of patients on subscales of the measures used, the majority demonstrated stable or improved outcome at follow-up assessments.

Efficacy and outcomes of facial nerve-sparing treatment approach to cerebellopontine angle meningiomas

OBJECTIVE Advanced microsurgical techniques contribute to reduced morbidity and improved surgical management of meningiomas arising within the cerebellopontine angle (CPA). However, the goal of surgery has evolved to preserve the quality of the patient's life, even if it means leaving residual tumor. Concurrently, Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) has become an acceptable and effective treatment modality for newly diagnosed, recurrent, or progressive meningiomas of the CPA. The authors review their institutional experience with CPA meningiomas treated with GKRS, surgery, or a combination of surgery and GKRS. They specifically focus on rates of facial nerve preservation and characterize specific anatomical features of tumor location with respect to the internal auditory canal (IAC). METHODS Medical records of 76 patients with radiographic evidence or a postoperative diagnosis of CPA meningioma, treated by a single surgeon between 1992 and 2016, were retrospectively reviewed. Patients with CPA meningiomas smaller than 2.5 cm in greatest dimension were treated with GKRS, while patients with tumors 2.5 cm or larger underwent facial nerve-sparing microsurgical resection where appropriate. Various patient, clinical, and tumor data were gathered. Anatomical features of the tumor origin as seen on preoperative imaging confirmed by intraoperative investigation were evaluated for prognostic significance. Facial nerve preservation rates were evaluated. RESULTS According to our treatment paradigm, 51 (67.1%) patients underwent microsurgical resection and 25 (32.9%) patients underwent GKRS. Gross-total resection (GTR) was achieved in 34 (66.7%) patients, and subtotal resection (STR) in 17 (33.3%) patients. Tumors recurred in 12 (23.5%) patients initially treated surgically, requiring additional surgery and/or GKRS. Facial nerve function was unchanged or improved in 68 (89.5%) patients. Worsening facial nerve function occurred in 8 (10.5%) patients, all of whom had undergone microsurgical resection. Upfront treatment with GKRS for CPA meningiomas smaller than 2.5 cm was associated with preservation of facial nerve function in all patients over a median follow-up of 46 months, regardless of IAC invasion and tumor origin. Anatomical origin was associated with extent of resection but did not correlate with postoperative facial nerve function. Tumor size, extent of resection, and the presence of an arachnoid plane separating the tumor and the contents of the IAC were associated with postoperative facial nerve outcomes. CONCLUSIONS CPA meningiomas remain challenging lesions to treat, given their proximity to critical neurovascular structures. GKRS is a safe and effective option for managing CPA meningiomas smaller than 2.5 cm without associated mass effect or acute neurological symptoms. Maximal safe resection with preservation of neurological function can be performed for tumors 2.5 cm or larger without significant risk of facial nerve dysfunction, and, when combined with GKRS for recurrence and/or progression, provides excellent disease control. Anatomical features of the tumor origin offer critical insights for optimizing facial nerve preservation in this cohort.

A systematic review of overall survival in pediatric primary glioblastoma multiforme of the spinal cord

OBJECTIVE The incidence of primary spinal cord glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) in the pediatric age group is very rare. Only a few case series and case reports have been published in the literature; therefore, overall survival (OS) outcome and the as-yet poorly defined management options are not discussed in detail. The authors performed a cumulative survival analysis of all reported cases of pediatric spinal cord GBM to identify the predictive factors related to final survival outcome. METHODS A comprehensive search for relevant articles was performed on PubMed's electronic database MEDLINE for the period from 1950 to 2015 using the search words "malignant spinal cord tumor" and "spinal glioblastoma multiforme." This study was limited to patients younger than 18 years of age. Survival rates for children with various tumor locations and treatments were collected from the published articles and analyzed. RESULTS After an extensive literature search, 29 articles met the study inclusion criteria. From the detailed information in these articles, the authors found 53 children eligible for the survival analysis. The majority (45%) of the children were more than 12 years old. Thirty-four percent of the cases were between 7 and 12 years of age, and 21% were younger than 7 years. In the Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, children younger than 7 years of age had better survival (13 months) than the children older than 7 years (7-12 years: 10 months, > 12 years: 9 months; p = 0.01, log-rank test). Fifty-five percent of the children were female and 45% were male. A cervical tumor location (32%) was the most common, followed by thoracic (28.3%). Cervicothoracic (18.9%) and conus (18.8%) tumor locations shared the same percentage of cases. Cervical tumors had a worse outcome than tumors in other locations (p = 0.003, log-rank test). The most common presenting symptom was limb weakness (53%), followed by sensory disturbances (25%). Median OS was 10 months. The addition of adjuvant therapy (radiotherapy [RT] and/or chemotherapy [CT]) after surgery significantly improved OS (p = 0.01, log-rank test). Children who underwent gross-total resection and RT had better outcomes than those who underwent subtotal resection and RT (p = 0.04, log-rank test). Cerebrospinal fluid spread, hydrocephalus, brain metastasis, and spinal metastasis were not correlated with OS in primary spinal GBM. CONCLUSIONS Adjuvant therapy after surgery had a beneficial effect on overall outcome of spinal GBM in the pediatric age group. Gross-total resection followed by RT produced a better outcome than subtotal resection with RT. Further large-scale prospective study is required to establish the genetic and molecular factors related to OS in primary GBM of the spinal cord in pediatric patients.

Endoscopic endonasal versus transcranial approach to tuberculum sellae and planum sphenoidale meningiomas in a similar cohort of patients

OBJECTIVE Planum sphenoidale (PS) and tuberculum sellae (TS) meningiomas cause visual symptoms due to compression of the optic chiasm. The treatment of choice is surgical removal with the goal of improving vision and achieving complete tumor removal. Two options exist to remove these tumors: the transcranial approach (TCA) and the endonasal endoscopic approach (EEA). Significant controversy exists regarding which approach provides the best results and whether there is a subset of patients for whom an EEA may be more suitable. Comparisons using a similar cohort of patients, namely, those suitable for gross-total resection with EEA, are lacking from the literature. METHODS The authors reviewed all cases of PS and TS meningiomas that were surgically removed at Weill Cornell Medical College between 2000 and 2015 (TCA) and 2008 and 2015 (EEA). All cases were shown to a panel of 3 neurosurgeons to find only those tumors that could be removed equally well either through an EEA or TCA to standardize both groups. Volumetric measurements of preoperative and postoperative tumor size, FLAIR images, and apparent diffusion coefficient maps were assessed by 2 independent reviewers and compared to assess extent of resection and trauma to the surrounding brain. Visual outcome and complications were also compared. RESULTS Thirty-two patients were identified who underwent either EEA (n = 17) or TCA (n = 15). The preoperative tumor size was comparable (mean 5.58 ± 3.42 vs 5.04 ± 3.38 cm³ [± SD], p = 0.661). The average extent of resection achieved was not significantly different between the 2 groups (98.80% ± 3.32% vs 95.13% ± 11.69%, p = 0.206). Postoperatively, the TCA group demonstrated a significant increase in the FLAIR/edema signal compared with EEA patients (4.15 ± 7.10 vs -0.69 ± 2.73 cm³, p = 0.014). In addition, the postoperative diffusion-weighted imaging signal of cytotoxic ischemic damage was significantly higher in the TCA group than in the EEA group (1.88 ± 1.96 vs 0.40 ± 0.55 cm³, p =0.008). Overall, significantly more EEA patients experienced improved or stable visual outcomes compared with TCA patients (93% vs 56%, p = 0.049). Visual deterioration was greater after TCA than EEA (44% vs 0%, p = 0.012). While more patients experienced postoperative seizures after TCA than after EEA (27% vs 0%, p = 0.038), there was a trend toward more CSF leakage and anosmia after EEA than after TCA (11.8% vs 0%, p = 0.486 and 11.8% vs 0%, p = 0.118, respectively). CONCLUSIONS In this small single-institution study of similarly sized and located PS and TS meningiomas, EEA provided equivalent rates of resection with better visual results, less trauma to the brain, and fewer seizures. These preliminary results merit further investigation in a larger multiinstitutional study and may support EEA resection by experienced surgeons in a subset of carefully selected PS and TS meningiomas.

Language outcomes after resection of dominant inferior parietal lobule gliomas

OBJECTIVE The dominant inferior parietal lobule (IPL) contains cortical and subcortical regions essential for language. Although resection of IPL tumors could result in language deficits, little is known about the likelihood of postoperative language morbidity or the risk factors predisposing to this outcome. METHODS The authors retrospectively examined a series of patients who underwent resections of gliomas from the dominant IPL. Postoperative language outcomes were characterized across the patient population. To identify factors associated with postoperative language morbidity, the authors then compared features between those patients who experienced postoperative deficits and those who experienced no postoperative language dysfunction. RESULTS Twenty-four patients were identified for analysis. Long-term language deficits occurred in 29.2% of patients (7 of 24): 3 of these patients had experienced preoperative language deficits, whereas new long-term language deficits occurred in 4 patients (16.7%; 4 of 24). Of those patients who exhibited preoperative language deficits, 62.5% (5 of 8) experienced long-term resolution of their language deficits with surgical treatment. All patients underwent intraoperative brain mapping by direct electrical stimulation. Awake, intraoperative cortical language mapping was performed on 17 patients (70.8%). Positive cortical language sites were identified in 23.5% of these patients (4 of 17). Awake, intraoperative subcortical language mapping was performed in 8 patients (33.3%). Positive subcortical language sites were identified in 62.5% of these patients (5 of 8). Patients with positive cortical language sites exhibited a higher rate of long-term language deficits (3 of 4, 75%), compared with those who did not (1 of 13, 7.7%; p = 0.02). Although patients with positive subcortical language sites exhibited a higher rate of long-term language deficits than those who exhibited only negative sites (40.0% vs 0.0%, respectively), this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.46). Additionally, patients with long-term language deficits were older than those without deficits (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS In a small number of patients with preoperative language deficits, IPL glioma resection resulted in improved language function. However, in patients with intact preoperative language function, resection of IPL gliomas may result in new language deficits, especially if the tumors are diffuse, high-grade lesions. Thus, language-dominant IPL glioma resection is not risk-free, yet it is safe and its morbidity can be reduced by the use of cortical and subcortical stimulation mapping.

Clinical features and surgical outcomes of patients with skull base chordoma: a retrospective analysis of 238 patients

OBJECTIVE Skull base chordoma is relatively rare, and a limited number of reports have been published regarding its clinical features. Moreover, the factors associated with extent of resection, as well as the value of marginal resection for long-term survival, are still in question for this disease. The objective of this study was to investigate these factors by evaluating their clinical features and surgical outcomes. METHODS A retrospective analysis of 238 patients with skull base chordomas, who met the inclusion criteria, was performed. This study summarized the clinical features, selection of approaches, degree of resection, and postoperative complications by statistical description analyses; proposed modified classifications of tumor location and bone invasion; studied the contributions of the clinical and radiological factors to the extent of resection by Pearson χ², ANOVA, rank test, and binary logistic regression analysis; and estimated the differences in overall survival and progression-free survival rates with respect to therapeutic history, classification of tumor location, extent of bone invasion, and extent of tumor resection by the Kaplan-Meier method. A p value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS The study included 140 male and 98 female patients with a mean age of 38.1 years. Headache and neck pain (33.2%) and diplopia (29%) were the most common initial symptoms. Sphenoclival type accounted for the largest proportion of tumor location (59.2%); endophytic chordoma was the more common type of bone invasion (81.5%). Lateral open approaches were performed in two-thirds of the study population (78.6%). The rate of marginal resection was 66%, composed of gross-total resection (11.8%) and near-total resection (54.2%). Meningitis (8%) and CSF leakage (3.8%) were the most frequent complications. The mean follow-up period was 43.7 months. The overall survival and progression-free survival rates at 5 years were 76% and 45%, respectively. Recurrent tumor and larger tumor volume (≥ 40 cm³) were identified as risk factors of marginal resection. Patients who presented with recurrent tumor and underwent intralesional resection had a worse long-term outcome. CONCLUSIONS The classifications of both tumor location and bone invasion demonstrated clinical value. Marginal resection was more likely to be achieved for primary lesions with smaller volumes (< 40 cm³). The rate of CSF leakage declined due to improved dura mater repair with free fat grafts. Marginal resection, or gross-total resection when possible, should be performed in patients with primary chordomas to achieve better long-term survival.