Sexual and Gender Minority Men's Bystander Behaviors and Barriers in Response to Witnessing Minor Sexual Aggression

Objective

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) men experience sexual assault victimization. Encouraging people to become involved when they witness high-risk sexual situations as a prosocial bystander is one preventative mechanism to address sexual assault victimization. However, research assessing the extent that SGM men will intervene when they witness a concerning male-to-male sexual situation and barriers that prevent intervention is lacking. We sought to address these gaps.

Method

SGM men (n = 323, M_age = 39.4, range 18-77) completed a web-administered survey. Participants were asked if they had witnessed a high-risk sexual situation and, if so, to describe how they intervened; if they did not intervene, they were asked to explain why not. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis.

Results

Nearly 50% (n = 157) of participants reported witnessing a situation that may require intervention, of those men 40% reported involvement. When SGM men intervened, their behaviors included direct and indirect verbal and nonverbal strategies. Reasons for not intervening included not appraising the situation as risky, not viewing it as their responsibility to intervene, or lacking the self-efficacy to act.

Conclusion

SGM men reported similar barriers to intervention that heterosexual young adults encounter. Participants also provided a variety of intervention tactics that could be included in bystander intervention initiatives to increase their effectiveness and inclusivity. Additional efforts are needed to modify intervention initiatives at both the individual and community level.

Does Alcohol Consumption Influence People's Perceptions of Their Own and a Drinking Partner's Ability to Consent to Sexual Behavior in a Non-sexualized Drinking Context?

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent that alcohol consumption affected participants' perceptions of their own and their friend's ability to consent to sex in a non-bar drinking environment. We interviewed 176 people at tailgates in dyads about their own and their friends' alcohol consumption, intoxication symptoms, and ability to consent. Participants reported consuming a mean of 4.6 drinks and had a breath alcohol concentration (BrAC) of .075 on average, but few thought they or their friend had diminished cognitive function. Accordingly, 92.6% indicated they could consent to sex and 81.8% indicated their friend could consent to sex. Number of drinks people reported consuming, self-reported intoxication levels and symptoms, and BrACs were not significantly related to participants' perceptions of their own or their friends' ability to consent to sex. However, gender pairing of the dyad was significant; those in man-man pairs were more likely than those in woman-woman pairs to indicate their friend could consent and they would allow their friend to have sex if approached by an interested party. Participants also indicated that they did not perceive themselves or their friends to be "too intoxicated" as common reasons why they believed they and their friend could consent. Because alcohol-facilitated sexual assault is common among college students, we recommend sexual assault prevention educators focus on raising awareness regarding alcohol's negative cognitive effects, particularly related to consent communication.

Barriers to recruitment and retention of undergraduate men as college sexual assault prevention peer educators

Objective: Male allies play an important role in sexual assault prevention, yet many college sexual assault prevention programs struggle to recruit and retain men. This study aims to identify barriers to recruitment and retention of male sexual assault prevention peer educators. Participants: Seventeen undergraduate male student leaders participated in this study during summer 2018. Methods: Semi-structured phone interviews were conducted, recorded, and transcribed. Response data were thematically analyzed. Results: Barriers to recruitment include perceived gender norms and discomfort with the topic of sexual assault. Barriers to retention include male peer educators' perception that women are resistant to men discussing sexual assault. Suggestions for improving recruitment and retention efforts are also identified. Conclusions: Recruitment and retention of male sexual assault prevention peer educators may require recruitment approaches that are tailored to men and programmatic changes that position men as allies in sexual assault prevention.

"You Should Have Known Better": The Social Ramifications of Victimization-Focused Sexual Assault Prevention Tips

Common sexual assault prevention strategies emphasize individuals' responsibility to protect themselves from victimization. Using a feminist theoretical approach, the present study was the first to assess the unintended, negative consequences that result when taking a victimization-focused approach to sexual assault prevention. Participants (N = 321) were primarily heterosexual, Caucasian undergraduate students from a Western postsecondary institution. A between-participants experimental design was employed, whereby participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) victimization-focused prevention tips (n = 114; e.g., "Be alert and aware of your surroundings"); (b) perpetration-focused prevention tips (n = 103; e.g., "Don't slip any unwanted substances into drinks at bars or parties"); or (c) study tips for control purposes (n = 104; e.g., "Take a ten-minute break every hour"). Following prevention tip exposure, participants read a sexual assault vignette and completed measures of victim culpability and several related constructs (i.e., ambivalent sexism, belief in a just world, and rape myth acceptance). Results indicated that participants who received victimization-focused prevention tips attributed significantly more blame to the victimized woman in the vignette than participants in both the control condition and perpetration-focused condition. Based on these results, it is recommended that social institutions further evaluate the efficacy and unintended consequences of prevalent victimization-focused sexual assault prevention strategies. Specifically, institutions should consider the implications of endorsing strategies that are evidenced to enhance victim blame, thereby perpetuating rape culture. Prevention strategies that engage bystanders and seek to prevent perpetration should be considered as an alternative approach.

A Quasiexperimental Study of the Bystander Plus Program for Changing Rape Culture Beliefs

Sexual violence is considered a public health crisis and is particularly a problem on college campuses. Efforts for rape prevention at the collegiate level have included decreasing rape myth acceptance and increasing prosocial bystander behaviors. Although bystander models vary in regard to format and target population (e.g., male, female, or combined programs), they hold the same goals and underlying principles: to teach individuals how to effectively, and safely, intervene before, during, and after potential rape scenarios. In line with this research, the current study examined the efficacy of a bystander plus program, that goes beyond single session bystander focused programs to include a stronger focus on culture change and consciousness-raising across two sessions. The program was offered to undergraduate students (n = 23), the intervention group, over two sequential weeks. The first session was based on a modified version of Bringing in the Bystander, called Empowering the Bystander (ETB). ETB is a 60-min interactive session in which presenters provide information and lead discussions and activities aimed to address rape myths, to increase sexual assault survivor empathy, to learn prosocial bystander behaviors, and to increase awareness of rape culture at large. We followed this with a consciousness-raising group called Define It! that asked participants to define and operationalize concepts such as sexual assault and rape culture in their own lives. Students in an introductory psychology course served as a control group (n = 58) and did not receive the intervention. Both students within the intervention and control groups completed demographics and the Rape Culture Inventory (RCI) at pre-, post-, and 1-month postintervention. Results revealed a decrease in personal and perceived college endorsement of rape culture beliefs among intervention versus control participants. We discuss the implications of these results with concern to bystander programming and future directions for bystander plus program development.

The Perceptions of Sexual Assault Prevention According to Military Spouses

Military spouses are at an increased vulnerability with regard to the potential of being sexually victimized. They are twice as likely as their civilian counterparts to experience sexual victimization. Despite the increased probability of sexual assault, not all military spouses perceive sexual assault and its prevention through the same lens. Recognizing that reality is subjective, the theoretical framework for this study was a constructivist paradigm. A qualitative case study was executed for the purpose of querying the perceptions of military spouses as it relates to sexual assault, its prevalence, and its prevention. The study employed the use of a web-based questionnaire consisting of 11 open-ended questions that included two scenario-based questions designed to explore perceptions of sexual assault, the need for a military spouse prevention program, and the catalyst for bystander intervention. Questionnaire results from 29 anonymous military wives whose husbands were affiliated with four out of the five branches of service were analyzed to gauge their perceptions specific to sexual assault and its prevention. The analysis of their responses resulted in the emergence of five themes related to sexual assault prevention that include the notion that military spouses view themselves as a vulnerable population for sexual victimization and its prevalence although little discussion is given to the topic. Results also indicated that a military spouse-targeted sexual assault prevention program is needed to familiarize military spouses with definitions of sexual assault and consent, reporting options, and victims' rights. The study also found that the majority of military spouses are not familiar with the resources and services available to victims of sexual assault. The overarching implication is that a prevention program for military spouses is needed to familiarize them with reporting options and services as well as mitigate occurrences of sexual assault through training and education.

Institutional commitment to combating sexual violence: The practices and policies of U.S. universities

By presenting institution-level variables of 118 universities across 50 states and the District of Columbia, we provide a descriptive overview of the types of programs and sexual assault-related data. Specifically, we examine correlations between policies and practices related to sexual assault prevention and reports of rape. As expected, we found that universities with policies pertaining to affirmative consent, alcohol, and inclusive definitions of assault, combined with practices like mandatory training and transparency with campus climate survey findings, also have higher reports of sexual assault.

The Gray Area of Defining Sexual Assault: An Exploratory Study of College Students' Perceptions

College-age women are disproportionately at risk of experiencing sexual assault. Sexual assault causes tremendous psychological distress for survivors. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the perceptions that affect the perpetration of sexual assault. One of those potential factors is how college students conceptualize and define sexual assault. The current qualitative study demonstrated that college students do not have consistent images of sexual assault and often rely on their own perceptions and experiences to define it. Creating and providing a standard of sexual assault based on the reality of college students can provide a foundation for creating effective prevention strategies.

Sexual Assault Prevention: A Randomized Control Trial of a Standard Military Intervention and a Motivational Interview Enhancement

Despite increased efforts to prevent sexual assault in military environments, the problem continues at an alarming rate. Sexual assault prevention programs (SAPP) attempt to respond to this issue, yet little is known about their effectiveness within a military environment. This randomized controlled trial examined the potential efficacy of the 2015 United States Air Force (USAF) SAPP compared to that same program with an additional motivational interviewing (MI) enhancement. The MI enhancement involved both self-guided and group discussions designed to elicit change talk toward preventing sexual assault through bystander interventions. Research questions included the general efficacy of the USAF's SAPP in shifting factors linked to sexual assault, specifically participants' endorsement of beliefs associated with sexual assault, beliefs eceived the pretest via e-mailabout intervening as a bystander when confronted with a hypothetical sexual assault situation, and participants' reported willingness to intervene to stop a sexual assault. Fifty-one college students participated, of whom 64% had a history of military involvement. Primary outcome measures included bystanders' willingness and confidence to intervene as well as indicators of rape myth acceptance. Participants in the standard USAF SAPP showed no significant change in willingness or confidence to intervene as bystanders from pretest to posttest. By contrast, those who received a relatively short MI enhancement showed statistically significant increases in their willingness to intervene as bystanders. Neither group showed changes in sexual assault myths. Enhancing SAPPs with a motivational enhancement effort seems justified, especially given the relative low resources involved in introducing such a program.

"What Should Sex Look Like?" Students' Desires for Expanding University Sexual Assault Prevention Programs to Include Comprehensive Sex Education

Rates of sexual assault and sexual violence among college-aged adults are much higher than the national rates of sexual assault and sexual violence. Therefore, reduction and prevention of sexual violence among university students is critical and is consistent with national public health priorities. Often times, messages to students focus only on sexual assault and omit larger notions of sexual health. Four focus groups with a total of 24 participants (nine men, 15 women) highlighted three main perceptions about the sexual assault programming offered at this large university: themes of resistance to traditional programming, a need for holistic sexual health programming, and a desire to have an environment, which normalizes conversations surrounding sex, sexuality, and sexual health.

Reducing Rape-Related Attitudes Utilizing a Cognitive Dissonance Paradigm

This study used a cognitive dissonance mechanism that required college students to write essays dispelling previously endorsed rape myth beliefs. Results indicate that participants in the cognitive dissonance condition reported less rape myth endorsement at a 2-week follow-up than the control group. Effect sizes were large. The cognitive dissonance condition also led to more sustained internal motivation to respond in a nonsexist manner and earlier identification of sexually coercive behavior. Counter-attitudinal advocacy appears to result in sustained decreases in endorsement of rape-supportive attitudes, which could lead to safer communities for women by altering beliefs predictive of sexual assault perpetration.

A Qualitative Analysis of Bystander Intervention Among Heavy-Drinking College Men

This study qualitatively examines how heavy-drinking college men conceptualize bystander intervention. Twelve semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with college men reporting past-month heavy drinking and sexual activity within the past 2 months. NVivo software was used to conduct a thematic analysis. Following the stage model of bystander intervention, men in this sample described situations-predominantly in drinking contexts-when other men made sexual advances toward women who were not interested or who were intoxicated as opportunities for intervention. Men reported relying on women's expression of verbal and nonverbal cues as a sign that a situation was problematic, and warranting intervention. Men reported a desire to protect women from experiencing a sexual assault, or to protect a peer from being accused of rape. Men perceived themselves to be more likely to assume responsibility for intervening when the situation involved someone they knew, especially a female friend. A variety of intervention strategies were also reported. Preliminary support was offered for considering alcohol myopia as a barrier to intervention. The interviews also provided preliminary support for further investigation into the role of alcohol expectancies regarding "liquid courage" and "aggression" as factors that can influence bystander intervention when intoxicated. Implications for future research and the development of tailored sexual assault prevention efforts for heavy-drinking men are discussed.

Facial emotion identification and sexual assault risk detection among college student sexual assault victims and nonvictims

OBJECTIVE

High rates of sexual victimization among college students necessitate further study of factors associated with sexual assault risk detection. The present study examined how social information processing relates to sexual assault risk detection as a function of sexual assault victimization history.

PARTICIPANTS

225 undergraduates (M_age = 19.12, SD = 1.44; 66% women).

METHODS

Participants completed an online questionnaire assessing victimization history, an emotion identification task, and a sexual assault risk detection task between June 2013 and May 2014.

RESULTS

Emotion identification moderated the association between victimization history and risk detection such that sexual assault survivors with lower emotion identification accuracy also reported the least risk in a sexual assault vignette.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that differences in social information processing, specifically recognition of others' emotions, are associated with sexual assault risk detection. College prevention programs could incorporate emotional awareness strategies, particularly for men and women who are sexual assault survivors.

Bystander Intervention Among College Men: The Role of Alcohol and Correlates of Sexual Aggression

Current efforts to reduce sexual violence in college campuses underscore the role of engaging men in prosocial bystander behavior. The current study implemented an online survey to explore associations between engaging in heavy drinking and attitudes toward bystander intervention among a sample of college men (N = 242). Correlates of sexual aggression were also explored as mediators of the hypothesized relationship between engaging in heavy drinking and attitudes toward bystander intervention. Data indicated that men who engaged in two or more episodes of heavy drinking over the past month reported lower prosocial bystander attitudes compared with men who did not engage in such behavior. The association between engaging in heavy drinking and lower prosocial bystander attitudes was mediated by men's perception of their peers' approval for sexual aggression, their own comfort with sexism, and engagement in coercive sexual behavior. Implications for sexual assault prevention are discussed.

Bad Touches, Getting Away, and Never Keeping Secrets: Assessing Student Knowledge Retention of the "Red Flag Green Flag People" Program

School-based prevention programs that target sexual abuse are commonplace in many elementary schools across the United States. This study examines the efficacy of the "Red Flag Green Flag People" program presented to elementary school children in two school districts in the Midwest. A brief, 11-question survey is given to students to assess knowledge retention of the curriculum from this sexual abuse prevention program. The results of this study indicate that students are retaining information taught in the Red Flag Green Flag People program for up to 2 years after the program was administered.

Using theater of the oppressed to prevent sexual violence on college campuses

Using theater of the oppressed as a practice method in sexual assault prevention interventions with college students is gaining in popularity. Theater of the oppressed interventions aims to change values and norms that perpetuate the acceptability of sexual assault and teach college students how to intervene in situations where sexual violence may occur. In this review, the author reviews the literature on using theater for social change as a prevention intervention. The aim of the article is to provide a synthesis of empirical studies investigating the effects and impact of using theater for social change in prevention education. Based upon this synthesis, implications for practice, policy, and research are provided.