Biologically relevant reductions in fetal testosterone and Insl3 induced by in utero exposure to high levels of di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) in male rats

Some phthalate esters alter male rat reproductive development during sexual differentiation by interfering with fetal testis maturation resulting in reduced Leydig Cell synthesis of testosterone and insulin-like 3 (Insl3) hormones. Gene transcripts associated with steroid hormone and cholesterol transport, and cholesterol synthesis and lipid metabolism also are reduced. These alterations cause permanent malformations of hormone-dependent tissues, sperm production and fertility in male offspring; effects known as the "Phthalate Syndrome." We have shown that administration of a high dose of 750 mg diisononyl phthalate (750 mg/kg/d DINP) during sex differentiation reduced fetal testis testosterone production (T Prod), testis gene expression and induced a low incidence of reproductive malformations in male rat offspring. In the current study we administered DINP at even higher dose levels (1.0 and 1.5 g/kg/d) from gestational day (GD) 14 to postnatal (PND) 3 to determine if these effects were dose related and if the magnitude of the effects could be predicted from a statistical model of fetal testosterone production (T Prod) and Insl3 mRNA levels. These models were previously developed using dipentyl phthalate (DPeP) data from fetal T Prod and postnatal studies. We found that the severity of the demasculinizing effects on the androgen-dependent organs and gubernaculum by DINP were accurately predicted from the statistical models of fetal T prod and Insl3 mRNA, respectively. Taken together, our results indicate that reductions fetal T prod and Insl3 predict the severity of demasculinizing effects in utero exposure to the phthalates DINP and DPeP regardless of potency.

Peritoneal cancer treatment with CYP2B1 transfected, microencapsulated cells and ifosfamide

The prognosis of peritoneal spread from gastrointestinal cancer and subsequent malignant ascites is poor, and current medical treatments available are mostly ineffective. Targeted chemotherapy with intraperitoneal prodrug activation may be a beneficial new approach. L293 cells were genetically modified to express the cytochrome P450 enzyme 2B1 under the control of a cytomegalovirus immediate early promoter. This CYP2B1 enzyme converts ifosfamide to its active cytotoxic compounds. The cells are encapsulated in a cellulose sulfate formulation (Capcell). Adult Balb/c mice were inoculated intraperitoneally with 1 x 10(6) colon 26 cancer cells, previously transfected with GFP to emit a stable green fluorescence, by injection into the left lower abdominal quadrant. Two or five day's later animals were randomly subjected to either i.p. treatment with ifosfamide alone or ifosfamide combined with microencapsulated CYP2B1-expressing cells. Peritoneal tumor volume and tumor viability were assessed 10 days after tumor inoculation by means of fluorescence microscopy, spectroscopy and histology. Early i.p. treatment with ifosfamide and CYP2B1 cells resulted in a complete response. Treatment starting on day 5 and single-drug treatment with ifosfamide resulted in a partial response. These results suggest that targeted i.p. chemotherapy using a combination of a prodrug and its converting enzyme may be a successful treatment strategy for peritoneal spread from colorectal cancer.

Skf 525-A induces cocaine N-demethylase, ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase, and pentoxyresorufin O-dealkylase activities by induction of cytochrome p-450 2B in female B6C3F1 mice

Studies demonstrated that cocaine-induced immunosuppression is mediated by metabolites of cocaine. Although SKF 525-A inhibited cocaine N-demethylation in liver S9 fractions isolated from female B6C3F1 mice, our study showed that pretreatment of mice with SKF 525-A potentiated cocaine-induced suppression of the antibody response to sheep red blood cells. An increase in formaldehyde generation was subsequently shown following incubation of cocaine with the S9 fractions prepared from SKF 525-A-treated mice, indicating the possibility of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) induction. Therefore, the inductive effects of SKF 525-A on CYP enzyme activities and proteins were investigated in female B6C3F1 mice to elucidate the potentiation of cocaine-induced immunosuppression by SKF 525-A. When SKF 525-A was administered at 10, 20, or 40 mg/kg/d intraperitoneally for 7 consecutive days, both ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase and pentoxyresorufin O-dealkylase activities were induced dose-dependently. Furthermore, the induction of enzymatic activity was time dependent. Meanwhile, when the type of isozyme induced by SKF 525-A was analyzed by Western immunoblotting with monospecific anti-CYP 1A and anti-CYP 2B antibodies, only the CYP 2B appeared to be induced. From in vitro inhibition studies with monoclonal antibodies, it was confirmed that the induced activity of ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase by SKF 525-A was due to increased levels of CYP 2B proteins. Our present results provide an explanation for the potentiation of cocaine-induced immunosuppression by repeated exposure to SKF 525-A. Our results also indicate that ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase, a selective substrate for CYP 1A, may also be catalyzed by CYP 2B.

Inhalation exposure of rats to asphalt fumes generated at paving temperatures alters pulmonary xenobiotic metabolism pathways without lung injury

Asphalt fumes are complex mixtures of various organic compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs require bioactivation by the cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase system to exert toxic/carcinogenic effects. The present study was carried out to characterize the acute pulmonary inflammatory responses and the alterations of pulmonary xenobiotic pathways in rats exposed to asphalt fumes by inhalation. Rats were exposed at various doses and time periods to air or to asphalt fumes generated at paving temperatures. To assess the acute damage and inflammatory responses, differential cell counts, acellular lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, and protein content of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were determined. Alveolar macrophage (AM) function was assessed by monitoring generation of chemiluminescence and production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1. Alteration of pulmonary xenobiotic pathways was determined by monitoring the protein levels and activities of P-450 isozymes (CYP1A1 and CYP2B1), glutathioneS-transferase (GST), and NADPH:quinone oxidoreductase (QR). The results show that acute asphalt fume exposure did not cause neutrophil infiltration, alter LDH activity or protein content, or affect AM function, suggesting that short-term asphalt fume exposure did not induce acute lung damage or inflammation. However, acute asphalt fume exposure significantly increased the activity and protein level of CYP1A1 whereas it markedly reduced the activity and protein level of CYP2B1 in the lung. The induction of CYP1A1 was localized in nonciliated bronchiolar epithelial (Clara) cells, alveolar septa, and endothelial cells by immunofluorescence microscopy. Cytosolic QR activity was significantly elevated after asphalt fume exposure, whereas GST activity was not affected by the exposure. This induction of CYP1A1 and QR with the concomitant down-regulation of CYP2B1 after asphalt fume exposure could alter PAH metabolism and may lead to potential toxic effects in the lung.

Biological effects of gestational and lactational PCB exposure in neonatal and juvenile C57BL/6 mice

The purpose of this study was to obtain a better understanding of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) immunotoxicity in the developing mouse. Adult female mice were dosed with three subcutaneous injections per week of 50 mg/kg Aroclor 1242 (A1242), Aroclor 1254 (A1254), or corn oil for 2 weeks and then mated with nondosed males. First-litter pups were sacrificed at 7 or 28 days of age. At both ages, the tissue concentration of PCB was significantly higher in both the A1242 and A1254 pups than in oil-treated controls. Seven-day-old pups exposed to A1242 or A1254 had significantly decreased splenic IL-2 production. Alterations in the percentages of T cell subsets compared to controls were observed in A1242-exposed pups; an increased spleen somatic index was noted only in A1254-exposed pups. Twenty-eight-day-old pups exposed to A1254 demonstrated a significant decrease in thymus somatic index, an increase in liver somatic index, a 25% decrease in total circulating T(4), and decreased B cell percentages relative to their controls. Alteration in the percentages of CD3(int) T cells was observed in A1254-exposed 28-day-old pups. A significant increase in 7-ethoxyresorufin- O-deethylase (EROD) and 7-benzoxyresorufin-O-dearylase (BROD) activity was measured at both ages in A1254-exposed pups and in A1242-exposed 28-day-old pups. These data confirm that during gestation and lactation A1242 and A1254 are transferred from dams to pups and that such exposure results in immune-related effects in neonatal (7-day-old) and juvenile (28-day-old) mice. Furthermore, A1254 exposure produces more frequent and pronounced effects than exposure to A1242.

Factors influencing activities of biotransformation enzymes, concentrations and compositional patterns of organochlorine contaminants in members of a marine food web

The accumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs; 34 congeners), sigmaDDT (p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDD and p,p'-DDE), chlordanes (sigmaCHL; trans-chlordane, cis-chlordane, trans-nonachlor, cis-nonachlor and oxychlordane), hexachlorocyclohexanes (sigmaHCH; alpha-, beta- and gamma-isomers), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and mirex was investigated in members of a marine food web from the Hvaler and Torbjørnskaer archipelago, south-eastern Norway. The species studied were bullrout (Myoxocephalus scorpius), cod (Gadus morhua), herring gull (Larus argentatus) and harbour seal (Phoca vitulina). Furthermore, hepatic biotransformation enzyme activities (ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD), pentoxyresorufin-O-depentylase (PROD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST)) were measured in all species. The objectives of the study were to investigate factors causing intraspecies variation in activities of biotransformation enzymes, as well as in concentrations and compositional patterns of the organochlorines (OCs). High correlations between EROD and PROD activities were found in all species, suggesting a single, common catalyst, CYP1A, and render the PROD assay questionable as biomarker for CYP2B inducers in marine wildlife. Furthermore, GST activities are shown to be dependent on biological factors, such as age (in harbour seal) and sex (in bullrout). In fish, the OC concentrations vary between the sexes, likely due to differences in fat deposition strategies and possibly sex dimorphism. In seals, concentrations and compositional patterns of the OCs vary with age, owing to selective transfer from mother to pup in utero and mainly through lactation, but likely also due to age specific xenobiotic metabolising capacity.

The dual effect of the particulate and organic components of diesel exhaust particles on the alteration of pulmonary immune/inflammatory responses and metabolic enzymes

Exposure to diesel exhaust particles (DEP) is an environmental and occupational health concern. This review examines the cellular actions of the organic and the particulate components of DEP in the development of various lung diseases. Both the organic and the particulate components cause oxidant lung injury. The particulate component is known to induce alveolar epithelial damage, alter thiol levels in alveolar macrophages (AM) and lymphocytes, and activate AM in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The organic component, on the other hand, is shown to generate intracellular ROS, leading to a variety of cellular responses including apoptosis. There are a number of differences between the biological actions exerted by these two components. The organic component is responsible for DEP induction of cytochrome P450 family 1 enzymes that are critical to the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and nitro-PAH metabolism in the lung as well as in the liver. The particulate component, on the other hand, causes a sustained down-regulation of CYP2B1 in the rat lung. The significance of this effect on pulmonary metabolism of xenobiotics and endobiotics remains to be seen, but may prove to be an important factor governing the interplay of the pulmonary metabolic and inflammatory systems. Long-term exposures to various particles including DEP, carbon black (CB), TiO2, and washed DEP devoid of the organic content, have been shown to produce similar tumorigenic responses in rodents. There is a lack of correlation between tumor development and DEP chemical-derived DNA adduct formation. But the organic component has been shown to generate ROS that produce 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in cell culture. The organic, but not the particulate, component of DEP suppresses the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by AM and the development of Th1 cell-mediated immunity. The mechanism for this effect is not yet clear, but may involve the induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), a cellular genetic response to oxidative stress. Both the organic and the particulate components of DEP enhance respiratory allergic sensitization. Part of the DEP effects may be due to a depletion of glutathione in lymphocytes. The organic component, which is shown to induce IL-4 and IL-10 productions, may skew the immunity toward Th2 response, whereas the particulate component may stimulate both the Th1 and Th2 responses. In conclusion, the literature shows that the particulate and organic components of DEP exhibit different biological actions but both involve the induction of cellular oxidative stress. Together, these effects inhibit cell-mediated immunity toward infectious agents, exacerbate respiratory allergy, cause DNA damage, and under long-term exposure, induce the development of lung tumors.

Lack of a distinct gradient in biomarker responses in small mammals collected at different distances from a highway

This study describes biomarker effects in small mammals exposed to traffic emissions. Animals were collected at 10-50 m (site 1), 150-200 m (site 2), and 5 km (site 3) from a very busy highway (A2). To distinguish between routes of exposure, strictly carnivorous common shrews ( Sorex araneus) and predominantly herbivorous bank voles ( Clethrionomys glareolus) were collected. As a measure of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), aromatic DNA adduct levels were determined by (32)P-postlabeling techniques in tissue from heart, lung, and liver. Lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and copper (Cu) levels were analyzed in kidney as a measure of exposure to heavy metals. EROD and PROD activity and retinoid levels were determined in liver as effect biomarkers for exposure to PAHs and polyhalogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (PHAHs). Relatively high Cd levels in S. araneus and in particular elevated DNA adduct levels in C. glareolus indicated that small mammals at site 3 were exposed to more compounds than at sites 1 and 2 (3 > or = 1 > 2). The latter effect is probably due to an incidental and actual input of airborne pollutants that is deposited on plant surfaces. By consumption of above-ground vegetation, voles are chronically exposed to this pollution. Relatively high background input of PAHs probably hinders that the traffic-related gradient of airborne PAH concentrations found in an earlier study is reflected in DNA adduct levels in small mammals in the present study. Moreover, historical biomarkers for exposure to traffic emissions, such as increased kidney Pb levels, increased hepatic EROD activity, and disturbed hepatic vitamin A homeostasis are no longer applicable to indicate differences in exposure. This is a result of the ban on addition of Pb and chlorinated scavengers to gasoline and of cleaner combustion techniques, which were enforced by law over the past decade. Finally, it is advisable to use only juvenile small mammals for in situ monitoring of diffuse pollution because DNA adduct levels increased with age.

Prodrug bioactivation and oncolysis of diffuse liver metastases by a herpes simplex virus 1 mutant that expresses the CYP2B1 transgene

BACKGROUND

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection of cancer cells results in viral replication with cell destruction and liberation of progeny virion that infect adjacent tumor cells. rRp450 is a novel replication-conditional HSV-1 mutant that expresses both the endogenous herpes viral thymidine kinase gene and the rat p450 CYP2B1 transgene; p450 bioactivates such cancer prodrugs as cyclophosphamide.

METHODS

Viral cytotoxicity and replication assays were performed in colon carcinoma cells as well as primary human hepatocytes. For in vivo studies, diffuse liver metastases were generated by inoculating MC26 cells into the portal system of BALB/c mice. Mice were treated with control media, rRp450, or rRp450 plus cyclophosphamide.

RESULTS

Cytopathic effects induced by rRp450 replication in colon carcinoma cells were equivalent to those induced by wild type HSV-1 in vitro. Assays developed to separate cytotoxicity mediated by viral replication from cytotoxicity mediated by chemotherapy confirmed that HSV-1 thymidine kinase bioactivates ganciclovir and CYP2B1 bioactivates cyclophosphamide in rRp450-infected cells. rRp450 mediated cytotoxicity in the presence of cyclophosphamide was increased by 21% to 30% above that achieved by viral replication alone. Cyclophosphamide bioactivation produced bystander killing of colon carcinoma cells but not hepatocytes. In contrast to these effects of cyclophosphamide, rRp450 mediated cytotoxicity was reduced in the presence of ganciclovir. These findings are explained by further experiments showing that bioactivation of cyclophosphamide only minimally affected HSV-1 replication in colon carcinoma cells, whereas bioactivation of ganciclovir markedly attenuated HSV-1 replication. In vivo studies revealed a substantial decrease in hepatic tumor burden in all rRp450-treated animals compared to controls. The addition of cyclophosphamide augmented rRp450's in vivo anti-neoplastic effect.

CONCLUSIONS

The rRp450 mutant HSV-1 is highly oncolytic against colon carcinoma cells both in vitro and in vivo. rRp450 displays preferential replication in colon carcinoma cells compared to normal hepatocytes. Activation of cyclophosphamide by the p450 transgene augmented the anti-neoplastic effects of rRp450 without simultaneously decreasing viral replication. Oncolysis induced by HSV-1 replication combined with cyclophosphamide prodrug activation warrants further investigation as a potential therapy for colon carcinoma liver metastases.

Microsomal cytochromes P450 catalyze the oxidation of low density lipoprotein

Low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation is a major contributor to foam cell formation during early atherogenesis. Several oxygenases have been implicated in the process of LDL oxidation in the arterial wall, where the environment is relatively low in antioxidants, but the exact mechanism for LDL oxidation in vivo is not known. In the present study we sought to determine the ability of cytochrome P450 2E1 (P450 2E1) and other P450s, located in the liver and in other tissues, to oxidize LDL. Upon incubation of LDL (0.1 mg of protein/ml) with purified, reconstituted rabbit P450 2E1 in the presence of NADPH and the NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase, time- and P450 2E1 concentration-dependent LDL oxidation was observed, as analyzed by determining the formation of peroxides, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and conjugated dienes. Within 1 h of initiating the reaction, almost maximal oxidation was observed. NADPH, and active P450 2E1 enzyme were required for LDL oxidation to occur. The rate of P450 2E1-induced LDL oxidation was also dependent on the lipoprotein concentration. P450 2E1 could also oxidize pure phospholipids and cholesteryl ester, the major lipids in LDL. In the presence of catalase or superoxide dismutase (SOD), LDL oxidation was completely blocked, suggesting that hydrogen peroxide and superoxide are involved in P450 2E1-induced LDL oxidation. The ability of P450 2E1 to oxidize LDL was not unique to this enzyme, and could be observed with some other purified, cytochromes P450 in the reconstituted system such as rat P450 2B1 and human P450 3A4. Finally, microsomal membranes obtained from rats that were induced to express high levels of P450s 2B1, 2E1, and 1A1/2 were able to oxidize LDL, whereas little oxidation was seen with microsomes that were induced to express 3A2. We thus conclude that LDL can be oxidized by some cytochrome P450s and, as some of these enzymes are present in liver and in arterial wall, they may have a physio/pathological relevance to LDL oxidation and atherogenesis.

Metabolism of carcinogenic N-nitroso-N-methylaniline by purified cytochromes P450 2B1 and P450 2B2

N-Nitroso-N-methylaniline (NMA) is an esophageal carcinogen in the rat. The in vitro enzymatic metabolism of NMA was investigated using cytochromes P450 2B1 and P450 2B2, isolated from liver microsomes of rats pretreated with phenobarbital (PB), reconstituted with NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase and dilauroylphosphatidylcholine. Formaldehyde is produced by both cytochromes P450 (P450). NMA is a better substrate for P450 2B1 than for P450 2B2. The maximal velocity (Vmax) values are 3.3 and 1.6 nmol HCHO/min per nmol P450 for P450 2B1 and P450 2B2, respectively. Beside formation of formaldehyde, aniline and p-aminophenol (p-AP) are found to be metabolites formed from NMA by both P450 isoenzymes. P450 2B1 also affords phenol, while none was found with the P450 2B2 isoenzyme. Phenol formation presumably arose from direct alpha-C-hydroxylation of NMA via a benzenediazonium ion (BDI) intermediate. The results suggest strongly that P450 2B1 catalyzes both alpha-C-hydroxylation and denitrosation of NMA while P450 2B2 catalyzes only denitrosation. Therefore, the P450 2B1 isoenzyme participates in the activation of NMA to the ultimate carcinogenic BDI.