Determination of chirality of alcohol or latent alcohol semiochemicals in individual insects

A method is described for determining the enantiomeric composition of chiral alcohols, lactones, and hydroxy acids in quantities ranging from 25 ng to 10 μg. Derivatization of the substance with chirally pure acetyl lactate, followed by splitless capillary gas chromatography, enables enantiomeric determinations to be made within 1-3% of the actual value. This technique was applied in the determination of semiochemical inIps pini (Say),Apis mellifera (L.), andCryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens). The results indicate that considerable variability exists within populations of some insects in the composition of their chiral semiochemicals, whereas others produce substances of constant composition.

Inter- and intrapopulation variation of the pheromone, ipsdienol produced by male pine engravers,Ips pini (Say) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)

We determined the chirality of ipsdienol in individual male pine engravers,Ips pini (Say), from New York, California, and two localities in British Columbia (BC). Both quantity and chirality of ipsdienol varied significantly between and within populations ofI. pini. Beetles from California and southeastern BC produced primarily (R)-(-)-ipsdienol with mean ratios of (S)-(+) : (R)-(-) of 9 : 91 and 11 : 89, respectively, while beetles from New York produced primarily (S)-(+)-ipsdienol with a mean (S)-(+) : (R)-(-) ratio of 57 : 43. A population from southwestern BC was unlike any other known western population, producing primarily (S)-(+)-ipsdienol with a mean (S)-(+) : (R)-(-) ratio of 66 : 34. In contrast to the unimodal chirality profiles for ipsdienol production in populations from California and southeastern BC, the profiles of the populations from southwestern BC and New York were bimodal, with a common mode at approximately 44 : 56 (S)-(+) : (R)-(-). Bimodality in the profiles of ipsdienol chirality in two populations ofI. pini and remarkably high levels of intrapopulation variation in pheromone chirality in all four populations suggest that evolutionary change in pheromone channels of communication could occur, possibly in response to artificial selection pressures such as mass trapping.

Enantiospecific pheromone production and response profiles for populations of pine engraver,Ips pini (Say) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), in British Columbia

Analyses of the enantiomeric composition of ipsdienol produced by individual male pine engravers,Ips pini (Say), from six populations in British Columbia, support the hypothesis that New York and Idaho races of this species hybridize in southeastern British Columbia. Production profiles, expressed as frequency distributions of (+):(-) ipsdienol ratios [= ratio of (S)-(+)-ipsdienol to (R)-(-)-ipsdienol], were bimodal for four western British Columbia populations. The (+):(-) ratios ranged from 63:37 to 71:29. consistent with those previously found for the New York race. The profile for a southeastern population from Radium, British Columbia, was intermediate between those for the four western British Columbia populations and that from one population in Kimberley, British Columbia, just south of Radium. Males in the Kimberley population produce predominantly (R)-(-)-ipsdienol, typical of California nad Idaho males. Response profiles of different individuals ofI. pini, determined by captures of beetles in multiple-funnel traps baited with ipsdienol of 11 different (+):(-) ratios, were not consistent with production profiles. Populations in Williams Lake and Princeton, in western British Columbia, and Radium, in southeastern British Columbia, had response profiles with maximal attraction to ipsdienol over a broad range of (+):(-) ratios, falling off as enantiomeric purity was approached at either end of the spectrum. This type of response profile is consistent with that for the New York race, which has been shown to respond optimally to (+):(-) ratios ranging from 40:60 to 70:30. The response profile of the Kimberley population gradually declined from maximal attraction to ipsdienol with a (+):(-) ratio of 2:98 to the lowest response at a (+):(-) ratio of 98:2. The attraction ofI. pini to chemical stimuli in California is interrupted by ipsdienol with a (+):(-) ratio >5:95, a pheromone of a host competitor, the California five-spined ips,Ips paraconfusus Lanier. We hypothesie that the Idaho race, which does not compete withI. paraconfusus due to geographical separation, is characterized by a Kimberley-type enantiomeric response profile, intermediate between those of the New York and California races.

Using the emerging Collaborative Cross to probe the immune system

The Collaborative Cross (CC) is an emerging panel of recombinant inbred (RI) mouse strains. Each strain is genetically distinct but all descended from the same eight inbred founders. In 66 strains from incipient lines of the CC (pre-CC), as well as the 8 CC founders and some of their F1 offspring, we examined subsets of lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells. We found significant variation among the founders, with even greater diversity in the pre-CC. Genome-wide association using inferred haplotypes detected highly significant loci controlling B-to-T cell ratio, CD8 T-cell numbers, CD11c and CD23 expression. Comparison of overall strain effects in the CC founders with strain effects at QTL in the pre-CC revealed sharp contrasts in the genetic architecture of two traits with significant loci: variation in CD23 can be explained largely by additive genetics at one locus, whereas variation in B-to-T ratio has a more complex etiology. For CD23, we found a strong QTL whose confidence interval contained the CD23 structural gene Fcer2a. Our data on the pre-CC demonstrate the utility of the CC for studying immunophenotypes and the value of integrating founder, CC and F1 data. The extreme immunophenotypes observed could have pleiotropic effects in other CC experiments.

Trap lure blend of pine volatiles and bark beetle pheromones for Monochamus spp. (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in pine forests of Canada and the United States

In 2007-2008, we examined the flight responses of Monochamus titillator (F.) complex [M. titillator, Monochamus carolinensis (Olivier), and any possible hybrids], Monochamus scutellatus (Say), Monochamus clamator (LeConte), Monochamus obtusus Casey, and Monochamus mutator LeConte (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) to multiple-funnel traps baited with and without host volatiles and bark beetle pheromones. Experiments were conducted in mature pine (Pinus) stands in Alberta (Canada), and Arkansas, Arizona, California, Florida, Idaho, Michigan, Montana, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee, Utah, and Wisconsin (United States). At each location, traps were deployed in 10 replicate blocks of four traps per block. The trap treatments were: 1) blank control; 2) ipsenol and ipsdienol; 3) ethanol and alpha-pinene; and 4) a quaternary blend of ipsenol, ipsdienol, ethanol, and alpha-pinene. All five species or species complex of Monochamus preferred traps baited with the quaternary blend over all other treatments. The consistency of these results across such a large geographic area suggests that similar selection pressures may be acting on Monochamus spp. in pine forests, regardless of variation in stand composition and climatic conditions. Our results suggest that multiple-funnel traps baited with the quaternary blend ofipsenol, ipsdienol, ethanol, and alpha-pinene may be highly effective for monitoring various Monochamus spp. in pine forests of North America, and may have utility in trapping and detection programs in North America and overseas.

Attaching lures to multiple-funnel traps targeting saproxylic beetles (Coleoptera) in pine stands: inside or outside funnels?

We conducted two field trapping experiments with multiple-funnel traps in 2008 and one experiment in 2010 to determine the effects of lure placement (inside or outside funnels) on catches of saproxylic species of beetles (Coleoptera). The experiments were conducted in southern pine (Pinus spp.) stands in central Georgia using combinations of ethanol, alpha-pinene, ipsenol, and ipsdienol lures. We report on a modification to the multiple-funnel trap that allows placement of large lures inside the confines of the funnels with minimal blockage. In general, catches of five species of common longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae), two species of regeneration weevils (Curculionidae), four species of bark beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae), and seven species of beetle predators and ectoparasites (Cleridae, Histeridae, Tenebrionidae, Trogossitidae, and Zopheridae) were higher in funnel traps with lures attached inside the funnels than in those with lures attached outside of the funnels. Catches of the remaining species were unaffected by lure placement. In no instance were catches of any species lower in funnel traps with lures attached inside the funnels than in those with lures attached outside of the funnels. For most species, catches in modified funnel traps with ethanol, alpha-pinene, ipsenol, and ipsdienol lures attached inside funnels were comparable with those in cross-vane panel traps.

Role of ipsdienol, ipsenol, and cis-verbenol in chemical ecology of Ips avulsus, Ips calligraphus, and Ips grandicollis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae)

Stressed or damaged pine (Pinus sp.) trees in the southeastern United States are often colonized simultaneously by three southern Ips species (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae): small southern pine engraver, Ips avulsus (Eichhoff); sixspined ips, Ips calligraphus (Germar); and eastern fivespined ips, Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff). All three species mediate colonization of host material with volatile pheromones. All of the southern Ips produce cis-verbenol, and either ipsdienol or ipsenol, and electrophysiological studies have demonstrated that all three southern Ips are able to detect all three compounds. This study examined the role of ipsdienol, ipsenol, and cis-verbenol in the chemical ecology of the southern Ips in Georgia and Louisiana. The most attractive blends of pheromones, with the fewest number of components, were ipsdienol plus ipsenol for I. avulsus, cis-verbenol plus ipsdienol for I. calligraphus, and either cis-verbenol plus ipsenol or ipsdienol plus ipsenol for I. grandicollis. Cross-attraction of I. grandicollis to the pheromone blend most attractive to I. avulsus was observed. Although the presence of heterospecific pheromone reduced the catches of all three species (i.e., the tertiary blend captured fewer beetles than the most attractive binary blends) in both states (significantly in two cases), high numbers of all three species were still captured in traps baited with all three compounds. These results suggest that the pheromones cis-verbenol, ipsdienol, and ipsenol can be combined for monitoring all three species of the southern Ips simultaneously.

INR targets and site-level anticoagulation control: results from the Veterans AffaiRs Study to Improve Anticoagulation (VARIA)

BACKGROUND

Not all clinicians target the same International Normalized Ratio (INR) for patients with a guideline-recommended target range of 2-3. A patient's mean INR value suggests the INR that was actually targeted. We hypothesized that sites would vary by mean INR, and that sites of care with mean values nearest to 2.5 would achieve better anticoagulation control, as measured by per cent time in therapeutic range (TTR).

OBJECTIVES

To examine variations among sites in mean INR and the relationship with anticoagulation control in an integrated system of care.

PATIENTS/METHODS

We studied 103,897 patients receiving oral anticoagulation with an expected INR target between 2 and 3 at 100 Veterans Health Administration (VA) sites from 1 October 2006 to 30 September 2008. Key site-level variables were: proportion near 2.5 (that is, percentage of patients with mean INR between 2.3 and 2.7) and mean risk-adjusted TTR.

RESULTS

Site mean INR ranged from 2.22 to 2.89; proportion near 2.5, from 30 to 64%. Sites' proportions of patients near 2.5, below 2.3 and above 2.7 were consistent from year to year. A 10 percentage point increase in the proportion near 2.5 predicted a 3.8 percentage point increase in risk-adjusted TTR (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Proportion of patients with mean INR near 2.5 is a site-level 'signature' of care and an implicit measure of targeted INR. This proportion varies by site and is strongly associated with site-level TTR. Our study suggests that sites wishing to improve TTR, and thereby improve patient outcomes, should avoid the explicit or implicit pursuit of non-standard INR targets.

Relative performance of Lindgren multiple-funnel, Intercept panel, and Colossus pipe traps in catching Cerambycidae and associated species in the southeastern United States

In 2004, we evaluated the relative performance of 8-unit Lindgren multiple-funnel (funnel), Intercept panel (panel), and Colossus pipe (pipe) traps, baited with ethanol and ac-pinene lures, in catching saproxylic beetles (Coleoptera) in pine stands in northern Florida and western South Carolina. Panel traps were as good as, if not better than, funnel and pipe traps for catching Cerambycidae. In particular, more Monochamus titillator (F.) were captured in panel traps than in pipe and funnel traps. Of three species of Buprestidae captured in our study, most Buprestis lineata F. were caught in panel traps, whereas most Acmaeodera tubulus (F.) were caught in funnel traps. Catches of Chalcophora virginiensis Drury and the root-feeding weevils Hylobius pales Herbst an dPachylobius picivorus LeConte (Curculionidae) were unaffected by trap type. Among bark beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae), catches of Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff) were unaffected by trap type, whereas most Dendroctonus terebrans (Olivier) were caught in panel traps, most Hylastes salebrosus Eichhoff were caught in panel and pipe traps, and most Hylastes tenuis Eichhoff were caught in funnel traps. Among ambrosia beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae), panel traps caught the most Xyleborinus saxesenii (Ratzeburg), whereas pipe traps caught the most Xyleborus Eichhoff spp. More Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky) and Dryoxylon onoharaensis (Murayama) were caught in panel and funnel traps than in pipe traps. Among bark beetle predators, more Platysoma Leach spp. (Histeridae) were caught in pipe and panel traps than in funnel traps, whereas most Lasconotus Erichson spp. (Zopheridae) were caught in funnel traps. Variation among trap performance for various species suggests that managers should consider more than one type of trap in their detection programs.

Bark beetle pheromones and pine volatiles: attractant kairomone lure blend for longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) in pine stands of the southeastern United States

In 2006, we examined the flight responses of 43 species of longhorn beetles (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) to multiple-funnel traps baited with binary lure blends of (1) ipsenol + ipsdienol, (2) ethanol + alpha-pinene, and a quaternary lure blend of (3) ipsenol + ipsdienol + ethanol + alpha-pinene in the southeastern United States. In addition, we monitored responses of Buprestidae, Elateridae, and Curculionidae commonly associated with pine longhorn beetles. Field trials were conducted in mature pine (Pinus pp.) stands in Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia. The following species preferred traps baited with the quaternary blend over those baited with ethanol + alpha-pinene: Acanthocinus nodosus (F.), Acanthocinus obsoletus (Olivier), Astylopsis arcuata (LeConte), Astylopsis sexguttata (Say), Monochamus scutellatus (Say), Monochamus titillator (F.) complex, Rhagium inquisitor (L.) (Cerambycidae), Buprestis consularis Gory, Buprestis lineata F. (Buprestidae), Ips avulsus (Eichhoff), Ips calligraphus (Germar), Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff), Orthotomicus caelatus (Eichhoff), and Gnathotrichus materiarus (Fitch) (Curculionidae). The addition ofipsenol and ipsdienol had no effect on catches of 17 other species of bark and wood boring beetles in traps baited with ethanol and a-pinene. Ethanol + alpha-pinene interrupted the attraction of Ips avulsus, I. grandicollis, and Pityophthorus Eichhoff spp. (but not I. calligraphus) (Curculionidae) to traps baited with ipsenol + ipsdienol. Our results support the use of traps baited with a quaternary blend of ipsenol + ipsdienol + ethanol + alpha-pinene for common saproxylic beetles in pine forests of the southeastern United States.

Variation in enantiospecific attraction of Ips avulsus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) to the pheromone ipsdienol in Georgia

In 2006, we tested the responses of the small southern pine engraver, Ips avulsus (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), to multiple-funnel traps baited with (+)-, (-)-, and (+/-)-ipsdienol. Three experiments were conducted in Georgia with all traps co-baited with one of the following lure combinations, respectively: experiment 1, ipsenol; experiment 2, lanierone and (-)-alpha-pinene; and experiment 3, ipsenol, lanierone, and (-)-alpha-pinene. Ipsdienol and lanierone are aggregation pheromones used by I. avulsus, whereas ipsenol is an aggregation pheromone used by the eastern fivespined ips, Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff), a sympatric species also breeding in pines. In all experiments, the highest catches of I. avulsus were obtained in traps baited with (+/-)-ipsdienol. The relative attractiveness of (+)-ipsdienol varied across the three experiments. When traps were co-baited with ipsenol, lanierone, and (-)-alpha-pinene, catches of I. avulsus in traps baited with (+)-ipsdienol were high and no different from those in traps baited with (+/-)-ipsdienol. When traps were co-baited with lanierone and (-)-alpha-pinene, catches in traps baited with (+)-ipsdienol were lower than those in traps baited with (+/-)-ipsdienol by approximately 40%, whereas catches were reduced by approximately 95% when traps were co-baited with ipsenol alone. We hypothesize that the observed variation in enantiospecific responses of I. avulsus to ipsdienol may be explained by variation in semiochemical context (i.e., different co-baits among the experiments) or seasonal variation.

Test of nonhost angiosperm volatiles and verbenone to protect trap trees for Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) from attacks by bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in the northeastern United States

Sirex noctilio F. (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) is an invasive woodwasp, currently established in northeastern North America. In other regions of the world, stressed trap trees are used to monitor populations of S. noctilio and to provide inoculation points for the biological control nematode Deladenus siricidicola Bedding. However, the operational use of trap trees for S. noctilio in North America may be compromised by the large community of native organisms that inhabit stressed and dying pine trees. Common bark beetles such as Ips pini (Say) and Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) could potentially compete with S. noctilio and associates for resources on trap trees, possibly reducing the efficacy of trap trees as habitats for the woodwasp. In an attempt to develop a technology to mitigate this potential issue, three common semiochemical interruptants--conophthorin, green leaf volatile mix, and verbenone--were tested for effectiveness in reducing arrivals of I. pini and I. grandicollis on trap trees treated with herbicides in northeastern United States. In addition, the effects of these compounds were determined independently with pheromone-baited multiple-funnel traps. None of the interruptants reduced numbers of I. pini or I. grandicollis either arriving on trap trees or caught in pheromone-baited traps. However, verbenone increased catches of I. grandicollis in traps baited with its pheromone, ipsenol. The mix of green leaf volatiles reduced catches of a native ambrosia beetle, Gnathotrichus materiarius (Fitch), whereas verbenone reduced trap catches of an exotic ambrosia beetle, Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford). Catches of X. germanus in traps adjacent to trap trees were enhanced with conophthorin.

(3Z,6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z) -pentacosapentaene and (Z) -11-hexadecenyl acetate: sex attractant blend for Dioryctria amatella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

In 2006-2008, we tested (3Z,6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)-pentacosapentaene (pentaene) with the pheromone components (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (Z11-16:Ac) and (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate (Z9-14:Ac), as sex attractants for four sympatric species of coneworms, Dioryctria Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in slash (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seed orchards in Georgia and Louisiana, respectively. The addition ofpentaene increased catches of male southern pine coneworm, Dioryctria amatella (Hulst), in wing traps baited with Z11-16:Ac, whereas catches of Dioryctria disclusa Heinrich in traps baited with Z9-14:Ac were unaffected by the addition of pentaene. The effect of pentaene on male Dioryctria merkeli Mutuura & Munroe was inconsistent. In 2006, pentaene seemed to inhibit attraction of D. merkeli to traps baited with Z9-14:Ac, whereas in a subsequent trial in 2008, moths were equally attracted to Z9-14:Ac with or without the pentaene. We caught too few Dioryctria clarioralis (Walker) in any experiment for meaningful analyses. Our field results with pentaene and the unresolved complexity of the taxonomy, ecology, and management of southern coneworms support the need for a comprehensive examination of the chemical ecology of Dioryctria spp.

Ethanol and (-)-alpha-Pinene: attractant kairomones for bark and ambrosia beetles in the southeastern US

In 2002-2004, we examined the flight responses of 49 species of native and exotic bark and ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae and Platypodidae) to traps baited with ethanol and/or (-)-alpha-pinene in the southeastern US. Eight field trials were conducted in mature pine stands in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Funnel traps baited with ethanol lures (release rate, about 0.6 g/day at 25-28 degrees C) were attractive to ten species of ambrosia beetles (Ambrosiodmus tachygraphus, Anisandrus sayi, Dryoxylon onoharaensum, Monarthrum mali, Xyleborinus saxesenii, Xyleborus affinis, Xyleborus ferrugineus, Xylosandrus compactus, Xylosandrus crassiusculus, and Xylosandrus germanus) and two species of bark beetles (Cryptocarenus heveae and Hypothenemus sp.). Traps baited with (-)-alpha-pinene lures (release rate, 2-6 g/day at 25-28 degrees C) were attractive to five bark beetle species (Dendroctonus terebrans, Hylastes porculus, Hylastes salebrosus, Hylastes tenuis, and Ips grandicollis) and one platypodid ambrosia beetle species (Myoplatypus flavicornis). Ethanol enhanced responses of some species (Xyleborus pubescens, H. porculus, H. salebrosus, H. tenuis, and Pityophthorus cariniceps) to traps baited with (-)-alpha-pinene in some locations. (-)-alpha-Pinene interrupted the response of some ambrosia beetle species to traps baited with ethanol, but only the response of D. onoharaensum was interrupted consistently at most locations. Of 23 species of ambrosia beetles captured in our field trials, nine were exotic and accounted for 70-97% of total catches of ambrosia beetles. Our results provide support for the continued use of separate traps baited with ethanol alone and ethanol with (-)-alpha-pinene to detect and monitor common bark and ambrosia beetles from the southeastern region of the US.

Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism method to distinguish three mealybug groups within the Planococcus citri-P. minor species complex (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae)

The mealybug species Planococcus citri (Risso) and Planococcus minor (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) have special significance to U.S. quarantine and U.S. agriculture. Commonly intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry, they are difficult to identify based on morphological characters. This study presents a molecular method for distinguishing P. citri, P. minor, and a genetically distinct group that is morphologically identical to P. citri, from Hawaii. This method uses polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by restriction fragment polymorphism analysis (RFLP) using the restriction enzymes BspH1, BsmH1, and HpH1. The resulting band patterns can be visualized in a 2% agarose gel and are sufficient to differentiate between the three entities mentioned above. PCR-RFLP diagnostics can be used for all life stages and is cheaper and faster than DNA sequencing.

Persistence with hepatitis C therapy in the Department of Veterans Affairs

BACKGROUND

Persistence with Hepatitis C therapy has been identified as a key variable for predicting treatment success. The primary purpose of this study was to assess the persistence with therapy for patients undergoing hepatitis C treatment in the VA healthcare system with two forms of combination therapies: peginterferon alfa-2a with Ribavirin (peg-IFN alpha-2a/Rib) and peginterferon alpha-2b with Ribavirin (peg-IFN alpha-2b/Rib).

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study design was used to analyse persistence in VA patients undergoing hepatitis C therapy during FY 2003-2004 using a large national VA data set. Stringent inclusion and exclusion criteria along with various defining variables were used to identify the inception cohort. Persistence rates were calculated for each of the two treatment groups at 3, 6, 9 and 11 months using the Kaplan-Meier method. Likelihood ratio test of equality between the two treatment groups was performed to detect any differences in persistence rates.

RESULTS

A total of 5816 hepatitis C patients formed the inception cohort. Persistence rates for the overall duration showed significantly higher rates for patients on peg-IFN alpha-2a/Rib than peg-IFN alpha-2b/Rib. Cox regression analysis also showed favourable hazard ratio of persistence (0.88) for peg-IFN alpha-2a/Rib over peg-IFN alpha-2b/Rib.

CONCLUSION

Peg alfa-2A/Rib showed slightly higher persistence rates for the overall duration of treatment as compared to Peg alfa-2B/Rib. However the differences, even though statistically significant, are small and not likely to translate into any substantial clinical advantage. Further research involving other approaches is required to confirm these findings.

Comparison of arboreal beetle catches in wet and dry collection cups with Lindgren multiple funnel traps

We compared the effectiveness of a dry collection cup (with an insecticide killing strip) to a wet collection cup (containing antifreeze) for use with Lindgren multiple-funnel traps in catching several common species of bark and wood-boring beetles, and their associates in southern pine forests. All traps were baited with either the binary combination of ethanol and (-)-alpha-pinene or the quaternary combination of (+/-)-ipsenol, (+/-)-ipsdienol, ethanol, and (-)-alpha-pinene. We found that cup treatment had little, if any, effect on catches of Ips avulsus (Eichhoff) and I. grandicollis (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), Alaus myops (F.) (Elateridae), Chalcophora Solier species (Buprestidae), Temnochila virescens (F.) (Trogositidae), and Lasconotus Erichson species (Colydiidae). In contrast, catches of the following species were significantly less (by 40-97%) in traps with dry cups than in traps with wet cups: Hylobius pales Herbst and Pachylobius picivorus LeConte (Curculionidae); Buprestis lineata F. (Buprestidae); Acanthocinus obsoletus (Olivier), Arhopalus rusticus nubilus (LeConte), Monochamus titillator (F.) and Xylotrechus sagittatus sagittatus (Cerambycidae); Hylastes porculus Erichson and Xyleborinus saxeseni (Ratzeburg) (Scolytidae); and Thanasimus dubius (F.) (Cleridae). The same was true in at least one experiment for the following species: Dendroctonus terebrans (Olivier), Hylastes salebrosus Eichhoff, Hylastes tenuis Eichhoff, and Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky) (Scolytidae). We conclude that cup treatment can have a significant impact on catches of some arboreal beetles in baited multiple-funnel traps. Anyone using multiple-funnel traps to capture arboreal beetles should evaluate the potential impacts arising from their choice of collection cup treatment to their trapping objectives and expectations. The issue of cup treatment may be particular important at low population levels when maximum trap efficiency is required such as in the detection of exotic insects at ports-of-entry and within quarantine and containment zones.

A Fungal Symbiont of the Redbay Ambrosia Beetle Causes a Lethal Wilt in Redbay and Other Lauraceae in the Southeastern United States

Extensive mortality of redbay has been observed in the coastal plain counties of Georgia and southeastern South Carolina since 2003 and northeastern Florida since 2005. We show that the redbay mortality is due to a vascular wilt disease caused by an undescribed Raffaelea sp. that is a fungal symbiont of Xyleborus glabratus, an exotic ambrosia beetle. Trees affected by the disease exhibit wilt symptoms that include a black discoloration of the sapwood. Redbay trees and containerized seedlings died within 5 to 12 weeks after inoculation with the Raffaelea sp. When redbay seedlings were challenged with X. glabratus, the beetles tunneled into 96% of the plants, 70% died, and the Raffaelea sp. was recovered from 91%. X. glabratus and the Raffaelea sp. have also been associated with mortality of sassafras, and the Raffaelea sp. has been isolated from wilted pondberry and pondspice. Additional inoculation studies have shown that the Raffaelea sp. is pathogenic to sassafras, spicebush, and avocado, but not to red maple. Female adults of X. glabratus have paired mycangia near the mandibles, and the Raffaelea sp. is routinely isolated from the heads of beetles. The fungus is apparently introduced into healthy redbay during beetle attacks on stems and branches. The wilt currently affecting redbay and sassafras represents a major threat to other members of the Lauraceae indigenous to the Americas, including avocado in commercial production.

Divalproex sodium vs. valproic acid: drug utilization patterns, persistence rates and predictors of hospitalization among VA patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder

OBJECTIVES

To compare divalproex sodium and valproic acid for therapeutic patterns, persistence rates and predictors of hospitalization among bipolar patients on monotherapy in the Veterans Affairs (VA) healthcare system.

METHODS

Using VA administrative data bases, we conducted a retrospective inception cohort study of VA patients'>or= 18 years of age who had at least one outpatient diagnoses of bipolar disorder and two continuous prescription records for the study drugs in the VA PBM pharmacy database during the study period of 1st April 2001 to 30th September 2003. Persistence for the comparative drugs was reported as continuous variable and compared using t-tests. Logistic regression models were used to examine the risk of hospitalization whereas Cox proportional hazard regression models were used to evaluate the time to hospitalization and time to interruption of therapy for the two drug groups.

RESULTS

We identified 4624 bipolar patients on monotherapy with valproic acid (n = 4036) and divalproex sodium (n = 588) during the study period. The descriptive statistics included sociodemographics, disability and comorbidity status and were similar for the two groups. For the crude persistence rates there were no statistically significant differences between divalproex sodium (120 days) and valproic acid (110 days). The logistic regression model for risk of hospitalization showed no statistically significant difference between the two comparators [odds ratio = 1.06, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.787-1.444]. The Cox model for time to interruption of therapy showed an insignificant hazard ratio (HR) for divalproex sodium vs. valproic acid (HR = 0.928, 95% CI = 0.844-1.020) and for time to hospitalization also no statistically significant difference in the HR for the two drugs (HR = 0.984, 95% CI = 0.784-1.295).

CONCLUSION

The study showed a comparable profile of generic valproic acid with divalproex sodium for persistence and predictors of hospitalization for bipolar patients on monotherapy in the VA. Results have important healthcare implications for treatment and costs.

Cross-attraction between an exotic and a native pine bark beetle: a novel invasion mechanism?

BACKGROUND

Aside from the ecological impacts, invasive species fascinate ecologists because of the unique opportunities that invasives offer in the study of community ecology. Some hypotheses have been proposed to illustrate the mechanisms that allow exotics to become invasive. However, positive interactions between exotic and native insects are rarely utilized to explain invasiveness of pests.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Here, we present information on a recently formed association between a native and an exotic bark beetle on their shared host, Pinus tabuliformis, in China. In field examinations, we found that 35-40% of P. tabuliformis attacked by an exotic bark beetle, Dendroctonus valens, were also attacked by a native pine bark beetle, Hylastes parallelus. In the laboratory, we found that the antennal and walking responses of H. parallelus to host- and beetle-produced compounds were similar to those of the exotic D. valens in China. In addition, D. valens was attracted to volatiles produced by the native H. parallelus.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

We report, for the first time, facilitation between an exotic and a native bark beetle seems to involve overlap in the use of host attractants and pheromones, which is cross-attraction. The concept of this interspecific facilitation could be explored as a novel invasive mechanism which helps explain invasiveness of not only exotic bark beetles but also other introduced pests in principle. The results reported here also have particularly important implications for risk assessments and management strategies for invasive species.