Synthesis of exo-Imidazolidin-2-one Dienes, Their Isomerization, and Selectivity in Diels-Alder Cycloadditions

An efficient and alternative synthesis of exo-imidazolidin-2-one dienes is described. A condensation reaction was carried out with bis-imino derivatives, diacetyl, and triphosgene, affording symmetrically N, N-disubstituted dienes. The use of alkyl methyl α-diketones led to the formation of nonsymmetrical dienes, which underwent isomerization to provide more stable inner-outer-ring dienes under Lewis acid conditions. Evaluation was made of the reactivity as well as regio- and stereoselectivity of these dienes in Diels-Alder reactions. They proved to be highly reactive and selective. DFT calculations of the transition states accounted for their behavior.

Packing and Postirradiation Handling of the Anastrepha ludens (Diptera: Tephritidae) Tapachula-7 Genetic Sexing Strain: Combined Effects of Hypoxia, Pupal Size, and Temperature on Adult Quality

The production of genetic sexing strains (GSS) of tephritid flies for sterile insect technique (SIT) programs convey the need to determine new conditions for packing and shipment since these flies are more susceptible to stressors than standard bisexual strains. We studied the effect of hypoxia, pupae size, and temperature on the new GSS Tapachula-7 of Anastrepha ludens flies (Diptera: Tephritidae). In one experiment, we tested the interaction size hypoxia using three pupae sizes, 6 (11.6 ± 1.1 mg), 7 (15.3 ± 1.5 mg), and 8 (17.9 ± 1.3 mg) (95% of produced pupae exhibit these categories of size), and four hypoxia periods, 12, 24, 36, 48 h and a control. In a second experiment, we tested two periods of hypoxia (24 and 48 h) and four temperatures: 15, 20, 25, and 30°C and a control (without hypoxia at laboratory temperature). Our results showed that the emergence and percent of fliers from the pupae exposed to hypoxia were adversely affected; however, emergence was higher in pupae of size 7. Treatment for 12 and 24 h hypoxia led to a higher number of fliers. In the case of the interaction of hypoxia and temperature, it was observed that those flies that emerged from the pupae exposed to hypoxia at 15 and 20°C exhibited quality control parameters similar to those that were not exposed to hypoxia. We discuss our results on the basis of the metabolic response to these factors and its application in the SIT programs.

Best Host Age of Anastrepha obliqua (Diptera: Tephritidae) for Multiplication of Four Native Parasitoids from the Americas

The success of the mass rearing of parasitoids is directly related to host quality, and it requires selecting the best biological host age to ensure the optimal performance of the parasitoids released into the field. The larval development of the parasitoids Utetes anastrephae (Viereck) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Odontosema anastrephae Borgmeier (Hymenoptera: Eucoilidae) and the pupal development of the parasitoids Coptera haywardi (Ogloblin) (Hymenoptera: Diapriidae) and Dirhinus sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) on the native host Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in different larvae and pupae ages were investigated under laboratory conditions. Not all parasitoid species developed with the same efficiency in immature individuals of A. obliqua; U. anastrephae and C. haywardi showed the higher parasitism rates. The emergence and parasitism of U. anastrephae were equal using larvae from 5 to 8 d, while C. haywardi reared in 1- to 8-d-old pupae showed higher averages of parasitism. These results suggest that native parasitoids can be used to strengthen the implementation of biological control projects against A. obliqua, a pest of economic importance in South America.

Fitness of Mass-Reared Males of Anastrepha obliqua (Diptera: Tephritidae) Resulting From Mating Competition Tests in Field Cages

The sterile insect technique uses males that have been mass-reared in a controlled environment. The insects, once released in the field, must compete to mate. However, the mass-rearing condition supposes a loss of fitness that will be noticeable by wild females. To compare the fitness of wild males and mass-reared males, three competition settings were established. In setting 1, wild males, mass-reared males and wild females were released in field cages. In setting 2, wild females and wild males were released without competition, and in setting 3, mass-reared males and mass-reared females were also released without competition. Male fitness was based on their mating success, fecundity, weight and longevity. The fitness of the females was measured based on weight and several demographic parameters. The highest percentage of mating was between wild males and wild females between 0800 and 0900 h in the competition condition, while the mass-reared males started one hour later. The successful wild males weighed more and showed longer mating times, greater longevity and a higher number of matings than the mass-reared males. Although the mass-reared males showed the lowest percentage of matings, their fecundity when mating with wild females indicated a high fitness. Since the survival and fecundity of wild females that mated with mass-reared males decreased to become similar to those of mass-reared females that mated with mass-reared males, females seem to be influenced by the type of male (wild or mass-reared).

Effect of Temperature on the Release Rate of Trimedlure Under Laboratory and Field Cage Conditions

The Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), is an exotic pest of economic importance in several parts of the world. Systems for monitoring this pest employ mainly trimedlure (TML), a parapheromone specifically for males. Understanding the performance of these attractants under different conditions should contribute to better design trapping networks, better field data interpretation, and a more efficient use of the products. In this study, the release rate of TML was determined at 15, 25, and 35 °C, through plug weight loss over 80 d in a bioclimatic chamber. The attraction of TML of different ages was determined in field cage tests located in a mango orchard. Our results showed a direct relationship between TML release rate and temperature. Attraction was dependent on release rate. We found that TML storage for >4 yr at 27 °C affected the quantity of the active ingredient available for release. The results are discussed in terms of the effects of these conditions on the efficiency of trapping networks used for the detection of this pest and quality assurance for detection programs.

The Effects of a Modified Hot Water Treatment on Anastrepha ludens (Diptera: Tephritidae)-Infested Mango

The Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew), is a quarantine pest in mango (Mangifera indica L.) that can be controlled by using a hot water treatment (HWT). This treatment is normally followed by a 30-min hydrocooling (HYC) process that reduces the negative effects that the treatment has on fruit quality. However, if hot water-treated fruits are immediately immersed in water at 21 °C, the survival rate of third-instar A. ludens may be increased. The current approved treatment protocol states that if HYC is used, then treated fruit should undergo an additional 10-min HWT or on platform for 30 min before HYC. We aimed to determine the efficacy of HWT without an additional 10-min treatment before being subjected to HYC, while taking into consideration that the most important conditions are the temperature of the fruit core throughout treatment and the type of infestation, either oviposition or inoculation. Two experimental tests were conducted. Our first aim was to determine the effectiveness of HWT followed by HYC using three varieties and different size classes of mangoes ('Ataulfo' 200-375 and 401-570 g; 'Tommy Atkins' 401-500 and 501-700 g; 'Kent' 401-500 g). The four treatment combinations used to test HWT and immediate HYC at 21 °C were 1) HWT, 2) HWT/HYC, 3) HWT + 10 min/HYC, and 4) HWT/30 min on platform/HYC; an independent experiment was used for each variety. The second aim was to validate the HWT/HYC combination by performing confirmatory tests in commercial packing houses. The results showed that as long as the mango core temperature reached 45 °C during the HWT, it was not necessary to add the 10-min treatment to the HWT before HYC at 21 °C was applied. To ensure that the larvae are subjected to the HWT treatment for sufficient time to be lethal, the temperature of the fruit core throughout the treatment must be recorded.

Head movement measurement: An alternative method for posturography studies

The present study evaluated the measurement of head movements as a valid method for postural emotional studies using the comparison of simultaneous recording of center of pressure (COP) sway as criterion. Thirty female students viewed a set of 12 pleasant, 12 unpleasant and 12 neutral pictures from the International Affective Picture System, repeated twice, using a block presentation procedure while standing on a force platform (AMTI AccuSway). Head movements were recorded using a webcam (©KPC139E) located in the ceiling in line with the force platform and a light-emitting diode (LED) placed on the top of the head. Open source software (CvMob 3.1) was used to process the data. High indices of correlation and coherence between head and COP sway were observed. In addition, pleasant pictures, compared with unpleasant pictures, elicited greater body sway in the anterior-posterior axis, suggesting an approach response to appetitive stimuli. Thus, the measurement of head movement can be an alternative or complementary method to recording COP for studying human postural changes.

Population Fluctuation of Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae) as a Function of Altitude in Eastern Guatemala

Population fluctuations of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) were evaluated over a period of 12 mo in four altitudinal strata (400-750, 750-1,100, 1,100-1,450, and 1,450-1,800 meters above sea level, masl) in Eastern Guatemala. Within each altitudinal range, sampling plots were established in coffee plantations and adjacent areas, in which Jackson traps were set and baited with Trimedlure. Coffee berries and other host fruits were collected. Population density was lowest at the 400-750 masl stratum and highest at 1,450-1,800 masl. At every altitudinal range, the fluctuations of the pest were associated mainly with the availability of ripe coffee berries as a primary host. From 750-1,450 masl, the pest was also associated with the availability of sweet orange and mandarins in commercial and backyard orchards. The highest densities of the pest were recorded in the dry season. Citrus were the main alternate host where ripe coffee berries were not available. This knowledge on population dynamics of C. capitata will contribute to develop more effective area-wide pest management strategies including the use of sterile insects, natural enemies, and bait sprays.

Long-term attraction and toxic effects of tephritid insecticide-bait mixtures by applying Torricelli's barometer principle in a trapping device

BACKGROUND

The field activity of the mixtures of liquid baits and insecticides used in the control of tephritid pests is normally short, both when they are sprayed or when used in trapping or in attract-and-kill devices. A new lure-and-kill device based on Torricelli's barometer principle was tested as a long-lasting dispenser for two liquid hydrolysed protein baits mixed with insecticide, GF-120 and Captor 300 + malathion, against Anastrepha ludens (Loew) flies of laboratory origin. The dispensers were kept under field conditions for 42 days. Laboratory bioassays for insecticide properties and field cage studies for attraction capacity were carried out on a weekly basis after 22 and 42 days of weathering respectively.

RESULTS

Our results demonstrated that both mixtures of insecticides and phagostimulant baits killed up to 80% of the tested flies when they were 42 days old. The attraction capacity of both weathering-exposed mixtures was even higher than fresh insecticidal-bait mixtures after the same period.

CONCLUSION

The device is efficient when used with the liquid baits currently employed in the control of tephritid flies. It also offers a high potential for combining visual stimuli, such as shape and colour, and for improving trapping and bait station designs. Incorporating this new device in trapping and attract-and-kill methods could help to reduce the frequency of servicing of the traps and bait stations and lower their costs. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

First instar larvae morphology of Opiinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) parasitoids of Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritidae) fruit flies. Implications for interspecific competition

The morphology of the first instars of the Opiinae braconids Diachasmimorpha longicaudata, Doryctobracon areolatus, Doryctobracon crawfordi, Utetes anastrephae and Opius hirtus (the first is exotic, and the others are natives to Mexico), parasitoids of Anastrepha fruit flies, are described and compared. The possible implications on interspecific competition among these species are discussed. The most significant adaptations found were: (1) the mouth apparatus, where the large mandibles and fang-shaped maxillary lobes present in D. longicaudata and U. anastrephae larvae were absent in O. hirtus, D. areolatus and D. crawfordi larvae, and (2) the degree of mobility for exploration and escape, such as the lateral and caudal appendages that were only present in D. longicaudata (ventrolateral appendages in the base of the head capsule), U. anastrephae (caudal lobe with two appendages) and D. areolatus (caudal lobe with a round apex with a globular shape). The first instar larvae of the species D. longicaudata show morphological adaptations that apparently confer competitive advantages against the larvae of D. areolatus, D. crawfordi and O. hirtus. However, the first instar larvae of U. anastrephae show larger mandibles, an adaptation that could enable this species to resist competition from D. longicaudata.

Comparison of Anastrepha ludens (Diptera: Tephritidae) Bisexual and Genetic Sexing (Tapachula-7) Strains: Effect of Hypoxia, Fly Density, Chilling Period, and Food Type on Fly Quality

The use of genetic sexing strain (GSS) insects in the sterile insect technique (SIT) makes necessary the revision of quality parameters of some stressful steps used during the packing process for aerial release because of possible differences in tolerance between fly strains. Here, we determined the effect of three periods of hypoxia (12, 24, and 36 h at pupal stage), three cage densities (1.0, 1.3, and 1.5 flies/cm2), two different foods (protein/sugar (1/24) and Mubarqui), and three chilling times (20 min [control], 90, and 180 min) on the quality parameters of flies of two Anastrepha ludens (Loew) strains (bisexual and GSS Tapachula-7). In general, the response to stressful conditions of both fly strains was qualitatively equivalent but quantitatively different, as flies of both strains responded equally to the stressful factors; however, flies of Tapachula-7 exhibited lower quality parameters than the control flies. Thus, hypoxia affected the flying ability but not the emergence or longevity of flies. The food type affected the adult weight; protein/sugar produced heavier flies that also survived longer and had a greater mating propensity. Flies under the lowest density were better fliers that those at the other two densities. Increasing chilling time reduced flight ability but not longevity or mating propensity. The implications of these findings for the use of A. ludens GSS in SIT programs are discussed herein.

Natural Parasitism in Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) Populations in Disturbed Areas Adjacent to Commercial Mango Orchards in Chiapas and Veracruz, Mexico

To determine the natural parasitism in fruit fly populations in disturbed areas adjacent to commercial mango orchards in the states of Chiapas and Veracruz, Mexico, we recorded over one year the fruit fly-host associations, fly infestation, and parasitism rates in backyard orchards and patches of native vegetation. We also investigated the relationship between fruit size, level of larval infestation, and percent of parasitism, and attempted to determine the presence of superparasitism. The most recurrent species in trap catches was Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart), followed by Anastrepha ludens (Loew), in both study zones. The fruit infestation rates were higher in Chiapas than in Veracruz, with A. obliqua again being the most conspicuous species emerging from collected fruits. The diversity of parasitoids species attacking fruit fly larvae was greater in Chiapas, with a predominance of Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti) in both sites, although the exotic Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) was well established in Chiapas. Fruit size was positively correlated with the number of larvae per fruit, but this relationship was not observed in the level of parasitism. The number of oviposition scars was not related to the number of immature parasitoids inside the pupa of D. areolatus emerging from plum fruits. Mass releases of Di. longicaudata seem not to affect the presence or prevalence of the native species. Our findings open new research scenarios on the role and impact of native parasitoid species attacking Anastrepha flies that can contribute to the development of sound strategies for using these species in projects for augmentative biological control.

[Rhabdomyolysis in a Bipolar Adolescent. Analysis of Associated Factors]

OBJECTIVE

To describe a case of rhabdomyolysis associated with the use of quetiapine and lamotrigine in an adolescent treated for bipolar disorder.

METHOD

Description of the clinical case, analysis of the associated factors and a non-systematic review of the relevant literature.

RESULTS

An 18 year old male, with bipolar disorder and treated pharmacologically with quetiapine and lamotrigine, after two weeks of physical activity presents with rhabdomyolysis. Quetiapine and exercise have been associated with rhabdomyolysis. The mediator mechanism of this association has not been found, although it has been established that there is neuromuscular dysfunction and an increase in sarcomere permeability.

CONCLUSIONS

This clinical case allowed the complex interaction between antipsychotic agents and increased physical activity to be observed in a psychiatric adolescent patient, as well as the appearance of a potentially lethal medical complication.

Estimation of populations and sterility induction in Anastrepha luden (Diptera: Tephritidae) fruit flies

The relationship between different release densities of sterile flies and fly trap captures, expressed as flies per trap per day, in the monitoring of Anastrepha ludens (Loew) populations was evaluated in mango orchards. The induction of sterility in fertile females was evaluated using different ratios of sterile: fertile males under field cage conditions. A direct relationship between recaptured flies and densities of release sterile flies was found. However, trap efficiency, expressed as percentage of recaptured flies, decreased as the density of released flies increased. Sterility induction was positively correlated to the ratio of sterile: fertile flies. A significant difference in egg fertility among treatments was observed. The trajectory of sterility induction slowed down after a sterile: wild ratio of 30:1, which suggests that this ratio could be appropriate in an sterile insect technique program with A. ludens. Sterility induction was greater when only sterile males were released than when releasing both sterile males and females, but the differences were not significant. Our findings contribute to a better interpretation of fly captures obtained from the field trapping networks, and to an improvement in the efficiency of sterile insect technique against A. ludens fruit flies, through the implementation of more rational sterile fly release densities.

Behavioral response of two species of stingless bees and the honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) to GF-120

We present the results of evaluating the response of three species of bees, Trigona fulviventris (Guérin), Scaptotrigona mexicana (Guérin-Meneville), and Apis mellifera (L.), to food sources baited with the toxic bait GF-120 (NF Naturalyte), a spinosad-based bait exclusively used to manage fruit flies. Groups of foragers were trained to collect honey and water from a feeder located 50 m from the colonies. Once a sufficient number of foragers were observed at the experimental location, the training feeder was changed to two or three feeders that offered either honey and water, GF-120, Captor (hydrolyzed protein), GF-120 and honey (4:6), or Captor and honey (1:19). T fulviventris and S. mexicana rarely visited GF-120, Captor, or their mixtures with honey, while approximately 28.5 and 1.5% of A. mellifera foragers visited the GF-120 and honey and Captor and honey mixtures, respectively. Our results show that GF-120 clearly repels T. fulviventris and S. mexicana, whereas for A. mellifera, repellence is not as marked when GF-120 is combined with highly nutritious substances like honey.

Effect of multiple endogenous biological factors on the response of the tephritids Anastrepha ludens and Anastrepha obliqua (Diptera: Tephritidae) to multilure traps baited with BioLure or NuLure in mango orchards

The physiological state of an insect is likely the most important endogenous factor influencing resource-oriented behavior, and it varies considerably among individuals. Trials were conducted in mango orchards to study the effect of multiple endogenous biological factors on the response of two fly species, Anastrepha ludens (Loew) and Anastrepha obliqua Maquart (Diptera: Tephritidae), to BioLure and NuLure baits. The biological factors of the two fly species that were tested were the following: 1) fertility status-sterile (irradiated) and fertile flies; 2) two types of diets (only sugar and a 3:1 mixture of sugar and hydrolyzed yeast protein; 3) sex, and 4) two sexual maturity conditions (2-4- and 15-18-d-old flies, representing immature and sexually mature flies, respectively, and 2-4-d-old flies treated with methoprene as an artificially induced sexually state male condition). The laboratory-treated flies were released into three different mango orchards. The trials were conducted in four blocks per orchard using eight traps in each block (50:50 BioLure: NuLure). The traps were replaced every 2 d during the 12-d period and the flies per trap per day values were calculated. More protein-fed, fertile, female, immature, and A. obliqua flies were caught compared with the other flies tested. In addition, the traps baited with NuLure attracted more flies than those baited with BioLure. Interaction analyses indicated that the type of bait and the sexual maturity status were the most important factors affecting the responses of the flies. Our study demonstrated that lures attract only a small segment of the fly population, those that have a specific hunger for amino acids-immature flies-and those that were protein-starved. The implications for improved trapping system designs are discussed.

The effect of irradiation and mass rearing on the anti-predator behaviour of the Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are major pests worldwide. The sterile insect technique, where millions of flies are reared, sterilized by irradiation and then released, is one of the most successful and ecologically friendly methods of controlling populations of these pests. The mating behaviour of irradiated and non-irradiated flies has been compared in earlier studies, but there has been little attention paid to the anti-predator behaviour of mass-reared flies, especially with respect to wild flies. Tephritid flies perform a supination display to their jumping spider predators in order to deter attacks. In this study, we evaluated the possibility of using this display to determine the anti-predator capabilities of mass-reared irradiated, non-irradiated flies, and wild flies. We used an arena setup and observed bouts between jumping spiders (Phidippus audax Hentz) and male Mexican fruit flies (Anastrepha ludens Loew). We show that although all flies performed a supination display to their predator, wild flies were more likely to perform a display and were significantly more successful in avoiding attack than mass-reared flies. We suggest that this interaction can be used to develop a rapid realistic method of quality control in evaluating anti-predator abilities of mass-reared fruit flies.

Precooling treatments induce resistance of Anastrepha ludens eggs to quarantine treatments of high-pressure processing combined with cold

High-pressure processing (HPP) combined with heat or cold has been proposed as an alternative quarantine process for Mexican fruit fly Anastrepha ludens Loew (Diptera: Tephritidae). HPP conditions at levels higher than 100 MPa applied to destroy eggs and larvae can also affect the postharvest physiology of the fruits. HPP at pressure levels in the range of 50-100 MPa is recommended. Eggs have been reported as being more resistant to HPP than larvae. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the effect of a precooling treatment on the biological viability of A. ludens eggs treated by HPP at 0 degrees C. The capability of nondestroyed eggs to develop and reproduce was also evaluated. One-, 2-, 3-, and 4-d-old eggs were precooled in ice water for 0 (control) 3, 6, 12, or 24 h and then pressurized at 50, 70, or 90 MPa for 0, 3, 6, or 9 min at 0 degrees C. The hatching capability of pressurized eggs was evaluated. The most lethal effect of HPP on nonprecooled eggs (0 h) was obtained at 90 MPa for 9 min, destroying all eggs except for the 3-d-old ones, which showed an 11.8% hatch rate. Precooling treatment improved the hatch rate of eggs ranging from 4 to 50% depending on precooling conditions. The main effect was observed after 6 h. These results suggest that precooling modified the biochemistry and physiology of eggs, improving their resistance to HPP treatments.

Transmission of nevirapine-resistant HIV type 1 via breast milk to infants after single-dose nevirapine in Beira, Mozambique

Acquisition of nevirapine (NVP)-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) by breast-feeding infants after receipt of single-dose NVP to prevent mother-to-child transmission is not well defined. A prospective observational study of 307 infants evaluated the rate of breast milk transmission of NVP-resistant HIV and the concentrations of mutants over time. NVP resistance was detected in 9 of 24 infants (37.5%; 95% confidence interval, 18.8%-59.4%) infected via breast milk. Eight had a pure mutant HIV population at the time infection was first detected, and majority mutant populations persisted in all 6 infants with follow-up specimens. Infection of breast-feeding infants with NVP-resistant HIV resulted in mutants persisting as the dominant virus, which may indefinitely compromise treatment with NVP-based antiretroviral regimens.

Anastrepha egg deposition induces volatiles in fruits that attract the parasitoid Fopius arisanus

Fopius arisanus is a solitary egg-pupal endoparasitoid that attacks several species of tephritid fruit flies, particularly Bactrocera spp. This species, indigenous from the Indo-Australian region, was introduced into Mexico for biological control purposes. From the standpoint of the 'new associations' concept this parasitoid has been evaluated against fruit flies in the Anastrepha complex. We investigated the specificity of F. arisanus responses to fruits infested with two species of Anastrepha. We examined whether fruit volatiles attractive to this parasitoid are induced as a result of fruit fly oviposition. We also investigated whether F. arisanus females are able to discriminate between the oviposition-induced volatiles from host eggs parasitised by conspecifics and volatiles from unparasitised eggs. All experiments were performed in a wind tunnel. Results showed that mango fruits infested with A. ludens eggs (2-3 days after egg deposition) were significantly more attractive to naïve F. arisanus females compared with non-infested fruits or fruits infested with larvae. In addition, guava fruits harbouring A. striata eggs were significantly more attractive to the parasitoid than non-infested fruits or fruits infested with larvae. Thus, the parasitoid was attracted to fruits with eggs, but fruit and fly species did not influence the parasitoid attraction. We also found that F. arisanus females were more attracted to fruits exposed to fertile A. ludens females (i.e. fruits with eggs inside) compared with fruits exposed to sterile females (i.e. fruits with no eggs inside) or fruits with mechanical damage. Parasitoid females were not attracted to A. ludens eggs. The results suggest that the presence of eggs induces volatiles that attract parasitoids. Finally, we found that F. arisanus was able to discriminate between fruits with unparasitised eggs vs. eggs parasitised by conspecifics, indicating that host discrimination could be mediated by olfactory cues.