Biomimetic hemocompatible coatings through immobilization of hyaluronan derivatives on metal surfaces

Biomimetic coatings offer exciting options to modulate the biocompatibility of biomaterials. The challenge is to create surfaces that undergo specific interactions with cells without promoting nonspecific fouling. This work reports an innovative approach toward biomimetic surfaces based on the covalent immobilization of a carboxylate terminated PEGylated hyaluronan (HA-PEG) onto plasma functionalized NiTi alloy surfaces. The metal substrates were aminated via two different plasma functionalization processes. Hyaluronan, a natural glycosaminoglycan and the major constituent of the extracellular matrix, was grafted to the substrates by reaction of the surface amines with the carboxylic acid terminated PEG spacer using carbodiimide chemistry. The surface modification was monitored at each step by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). HA-immobilized surfaces displayed increased hydrophilicity and reduced fouling, compared to bare surfaces, when exposed to human platelets (PLT) in an in vitro assay with radiolabeled platelets (204.1 +/- 123.8 x 10 (3) PLT/cm (2) vs 538.5 +/- 100.5 x 10 (3) PLT/cm (2) for bare metal, p < 0.05). Using a robust plasma patterning technique, microstructured hyaluronan surfaces were successfully created as demonstrated by XPS chemical imaging. The bioactive surfaces described present unique features, which result from the synergy between the intrinsic biological properties of hyaluronan and the chemical composition and morphology of the polymer layer immobilized on a metal surface.

Temperature-responsive polymers in mixed solvents: competitive hydrogen bonds cause cononsolvency

If two good solvents become poor for a polymer when mixed, the solvent pair is called a cononsolvent pair. The sharp reentrant coil-to-globule-to-coil transition of a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) chain observed in the mixed solvent of water and methanol is shown to be caused by the competitive hydrogen bonding by water and methanol molecules onto the polymer chain. On the basis of a new statistical-mechanical model for competitive hydrogen bonds, the mean square end-to-end distance is theoretically calculated and compared with experiment. The chain sharply collapses at the molar fraction xm approximately 0.2 of methanol, stays collapsed up to xm approximately 0.4, and finally recovers the swollen state at xm approximately 0.6. Such a reentrant coil-globule transition takes place because the total number of hydrogen bonds along the chain exhibits a similar square-well-type depression as a result of the competition.

Group reorientation and migration of amphiphilic polymer bearing phosphorylcholine functionalities on surface of cellular membrane mimicking coating

Amphiphilic polymers bearing phosphorylcholine (PC) groups can form films of interfacial structure similar to that of the outer membrane of living cells. The films, as prepared, present PC groups to the external aqueous environment and exhibit good biocompatibility. However, under certain conditions, the surface structure can change irreversibly due to the reorientation and deep migration of the surface groups. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), dynamic contact angle measurements, and cell culture experiments were used to investigate the reorientation and migration of the surface groups of an amphiphilic PC-polymer coating. When the polymer surface is immersed into or drawn out of water, significant reorientation and group migration occurs, as suggested by the large difference between the advancing and receding contact angles. Angle-resolved XPS measurements indicate that the hydrophobic groups move to the air/film interface while the hydrophilic groups migrate towards the bulk of the polymer coating. Long periods of aging may result in irreversible changes of the surface structure and decrease the biocompatibility of the materials.

Enhancement of hydrophilic drug loading and release characteristics through micellization with new carboxymethyldextran-PEG block copolymers of tunable charge density

The micellization of a model cationic drug, diminazene diaceturate (DIM) and a series of new diblock copolymers, carboxymethyldextran-poly(ethylene glycols) (CMD-PEG), were evaluated as a function of the ionic charge density or degree of substitution (DS) of the carboxymethyldextran block and the molar ratio, [+]/[-], of positive charges provided by the drug to negative charges provided by CMD-PEG. Micelles ([+]/[-]=2) incorporated up to 64% (w/w) DIM and ranged in hydrodynamic radius (R(H)) from 36 to 50 nm, depending on the molecular weight and DS of CMD-PEG. The critical association concentration (CAC) was on the order of 15-50mg/L for CMD-PEG of DS>60%, and ca. 100mg/L for CMD-PEG of DS approximately 30%. The micelles were stable upon storage in solution for up to 2 months and after freeze-drying in the presence of trehalose. They remained intact within the 4<pH<11 range and for solutions of pH 5.3, they resisted increases in salinity up to approximately 0.4M NaCl in the case of CMD-PEG of high DS. However, micelles of DIM and a CMD-PEG of low DS (30%) disintegrated in solutions containing more than 0.1M NaCl, setting a minimum value to the DS of copolymers useful in in vivo applications. Sustained in vitro DIM release was observed for micelles of CMD-PEG of high DS ([+]/[-]=2).

Complexation of integral membrane proteins by phosphorylcholine-based amphipols

Amphiphilic macromolecules, known as amphipols, have emerged as promising candidates to replace conventional detergents for handling integral membrane proteins in water due to the enhanced stability of protein/amphipol complexes as compared to protein/detergent complexes. The limited portfolio of amphipols currently available prompted us to develop amphipols bearing phosphorylcholine-based units (PC). Unlike carboxylated polymers, PC-amphipols remain soluble in aqueous media under conditions of low pH, high salt concentration, or in the presence of divalent ions. The solubilizing properties of four PC-amphipols were assessed in the case of two membrane proteins, cytochrome b(6)f and bacteriorhodopsin. The protein/PC-amphipol complexes had a low dispersity in size, as determined by rate zonal ultracentrifugation. Short PC-amphipols (<M> approximately 22 kDa) of low dispersity in length, containing approximately 30 mol% octyl side groups, approximately 35 mol% PC-groups, and approximately 35 mol% isopropyl side groups, appeared best suited to form stable complexes, preserving the native state of BR over periods of several days. BR/PC-amphipol complexes remained soluble in aqueous media at pH> or =5, as well as in the presence of 1 M NaCl or 12 mM calcium ions. Results from isothermal titration calorimetry indicated that the energetics of the conversion of BR/detergent complexes into BR/amphipol complexes are similar for PC-amphipols and carboxylated amphiphols.

Construction of Viscoelastic Biocompatible Films via the Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Hyaluronan and Phosphorylcholine-Modified Chitosan

Films of hyaluronan (HA) and a phosphorylcholine-modified chitosan (PC-CH) were constructed by the polyelectrolyte multilayer (PEM) deposition technique and their buildup in 0.15 M NaCl was followed by atomic force microscopy, surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy (SPR), and dissipative quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). The HA/PC-CH films were stable over a wide pH range (3.0-12.0), exhibiting a stronger resistance against alkaline conditions as compared to HA/CH films. The loss and storage moduli, G' and G", of the films throughout the growth of eight bilayer assemblies were derived from an impedance analysis of the QCM data recorded in situ. Both G' and G" values were one order of magnitude lower than the moduli of HA/CH films. The fluid gel-like characteristics of HA/PC-CH multilayers were attributed to their high water content (50 wt %), which was estimated by comparing the surface coverage values derived from SPR and QCM measurements. Given the versatility of the PEM methodology, HA/PC-CH films are attractive tools for developing biocompatible surface coatings of controlled mechanical properties.

Self-assembled nanogels of cholesteryl-modified polysaccharides: effect of the polysaccharide structure on their association characteristics in the dilute and semidilute regimes

The assembly of cholesteryl derivatives of the highly branched polysaccharide mannan Mw = (5.2 x 104 g/mol) in dilute aqueous solution was investigated by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, size-exclusion chromatography coupled with multiangle laser scattering (SEC-MALLS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), fluorescence quenching, and fluorescence depolarization measurements. In the dilute regime, cholesteryl-bearing mannans (CHM) containing approximately 1 cholesteryl group per 100 mannopyranose units formed nanogels with a hydrodynamic radius (RH) of approximately 20 nm containing approximately 8 macromolecules held together via hydrophobic nanodomains consisting of approximately 9 cholesteryl groups. Their density Phih ( approximately 0.02) was significantly lower than the density ( approximately 0.16) of nanogels formed by a cholesteryl derivative of the linear polysaccharide pullulan (CHP) of identical molar mass and level of cholesteryl substitution. In the semidilute regime, CHM nanogels formed a macrogel network for concentrations higher than 12.5% w/w, whereas CHP nanogels underwent macrogelation only above a threshold concentration of 8.0% w/w, as revealed by oscillatory and steady-shear viscosity measurements. The differences in the solution properties of CHM and CHP reflect differences in their assembly on the molecular level, in particular, the size and number of hydrophobic nanodomains and the hydration level. They are attributed to differences in the mobility of the cholesteryl groups which, itself, can be traced to the fact that in CHM the cholesteryl groups are predominantly linked to short oligomannopyranose branches, whereas in CHP they are linked to the polymer main chain. Our study provides a novel means to nanoengineer polysaccharide nanogels which may find unique biotechnological applications.

Enthalpy of interaction and binding isotherms of non-ionic surfactants onto micellar amphiphilic polymers (amphipols)

The interactions in water between short amphiphilic macromomolecules, known as amphipols, and three neutral surfactants (detergents), dodecylmaltoside (DM), n-octylthioglucoside (OTG), and n-octyltetraethyleneoxide (C8E4), have been assessed by static and dynamic light-scattering (SLS and DLS), capillary electrophoresis (CE), and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The amphipols selected are random copolymers of the hydrophobic n-octylacrylamide (25-30 mol %), a charged hydrophilic monomer, either acrylic acid ( approximately 35 mol %) or a phosphorylcholine-modified acrylamide (40-70 mol %), and, optionally, N-isopropylacrylamide (30-40 mol %). In water, the copolymers form micelles of small size (hydrodynamic radius: approximately 5 nm). Neutral surfactants, below their critical micellar concentration (cmc), form mixed micelles with the amphipols irrespective of the chemical structure of the detergent or the polymer. The fraction of detergent in the surfactant/polymer complexes increases significantly (cooperatively) as the surfactant concentration nears the cmc. The ITC data, together with data gathered by CE, were fitted via a regular mixing model, which allowed us to predict the detergent concentration in equilibrium with complexes and the heat evolved upon transfer of detergent from water into a mixed surfactant/polymer complex. The enthalpy of transfer was found to be almost equal to the enthalpy of micellization, and the regular mixing model points to a near-ideal mixing behavior for all systems. Amphipols are promising tools in biochemistry where they are used, together with neutral surfactants, for the stabilization and handling of proteins. This study provides guidelines for the optimization of current protein purification protocols and for the formulations of surfactant/polymer systems used in pharmaceutics, cosmetics, and foodstuffs.

Long-term exposure to CdTe quantum dots causes functional impairments in live cells

Several studies suggested that the cytotoxic effects of quantum dots (QDs) may be mediated by cadmium ions (Cd2+) released from the QDs cores. The objective of this work was to assess the intracellular Cd2+ concentration in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells treated with cadmium telluride (CdTe) and core/shell cadmium selenide/zinc sulfide (CdSe/ZnS) nanoparticles capped with mercaptopropionic acid (MPA), cysteamine (Cys), or N-acetylcysteine (NAC) conjugated to cysteamine. The Cd2+ concentration determined by a Cd2+-specific cellular assay was below the assay detection limit (<5 nM) in cells treated with CdSe/ZnS QDs, while in cells incubated with CdTe QDs, it ranged from approximately 30 to 150 nM, depending on the capping molecule. A cell viability assay revealed that CdSe/ZnS QDs were nontoxic, whereas the CdTe QDs were cytotoxic. However, for the various CdTe QD samples, there was no dose-dependent correlation between cell viability and intracellular [Cd2+], implying that their cytotoxicity cannot be attributed solely to the toxic effect of free Cd2+. Confocal laser scanning microscopy of CdTe QDs-treated cells imaged with organelle-specific dyes revealed significant lysosomal damage attributable to the presence of Cd2+ and of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can be formed via Cd2+-specific cellular pathways and/or via CdTe-triggered photoxidative processes involving singlet oxygen or electron transfer from excited QDs to oxygen. In summary, CdTe QDs induce cell death via mechanisms involving both Cd2+ and ROS accompanied by lysosomal enlargement and intracellular redistribution.

Synthesis and characterization of phosphorylcholine-substituted chitosans soluble in physiological pH conditions

A polymer analogous synthesis involving the reductive amination of phosphorylcholine (PC)-glyceraldehyde with primary amines of deacetylated chitosan (M(w) approximately 57000 g mol(-1)) was used to prepare phosphorylcholine-substituted chitosans (PC-CH) with a degree of substitution (DS) ranging from approximately 11 to approximately 53 mol % PC-substituted glucosamine residues. The PC-CH derivatives were characterized by (1)H NMR spectroscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, and multiangle laser light scattering gel permeation chromatography (MALLS-GPC). The pK(a) of the PC-substituted amine groups (pK(a) approximately 7.20) was determined by (1)H NMR titration. The PC-CH samples (1.0 g L(-1)) were shown to be nontoxic using an MTT assay performed with human KB cells. Aqueous solutions of PC-CH samples (4.0 g L(-1)) of DS >or= 22 mol % PC-substituted glucosamine residues remained clear, independently of pH (4.0 < pH < 11.0). The remarkable water solubility and nontoxicity displayed by the new PC-CH samples open up new opportunities in the design of chitosan-based biomaterials and nanoparticles.

Botryoidal assembly of cholesteryl-pullulan/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) nanogels

Hybrid nanogels consisting of cholesteryl-modified pullulan (CHP) and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) were synthesized by graft free-radical copolymerization of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) onto methacryloyl-substituted CHP nanogels (CHPMA) in water at 50 degrees C in the presence of a water-soluble free radical initiator. Depending on the initial NIPAM/CHPMA ratio, CHP-PNIPAM (CN) nanogels containing 30.8-84.8 wt % PNIPAM were obtained in the form of self-assembled nanoparticles with a hydrodynamic radius (Rh) of 69.0-116.0 nm in water kept at 20 degrees C. Hybrid nanogels of sufficiently high NIPAM content, such as the sample CN90, which contains 79.6 wt % NIPAM, exhibited a two-step response to changes in solution (3 mg/mL) temperature: a decrease in Rh from 93 to 57 nm as the temperature increased from 20 to 35 degrees C, followed by a sharp increase in Rh from 57 nm to 90 nm at 55 degrees C. Both steps in this temperature response were reversible. The multistep response to temperature of the CN nanogels was attributed to the morphology of the nanogels, which are seen as consisting of grape-like (botryoidal) clusters of associated native nanogels held together via cholesteryl cross-linking points and held together by the grafted PNIPAM chains.

End-grafted low-molecular-weight PNIPAM does not collapse above the LCST

The interfacial properties of end-grafted temperature-responsive poly(N-isopropylacryamide) (PNIPAM) were quantified by direct force measurements both above and below the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of 32 degrees C. The forces were measured between identical, opposing PNIPAM films and between a PNIPAM film and a lipid membrane. At the grafting densities and molecular weights investigated, the polymer extension did not change significantly above the LCST, and the polymers did not adhere. Below the LCST, the force-distance profiles suggest a vertical phase separation, which results in a diluter outer layer and a dense surface proximal layer. At large separations, the force profiles agree qualitatively with simple polymer theory but deviate at small separations. Importantly, at these low grafting densities and molecular weights, the end-grafted PNIPAM does not collapse above the LCST. This finding has direct implications for triggering liposomal drug release with end-grafted PNIPAM, but it increases the temperature range where these short PNIPAM chains function as steric stabilizers.

Unified model of association-induced lower critical solution temperature phase separation and its application to solutions of telechelic poly(ethylene oxide) and of telechelic poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) in water

The authors present a model describing the coexistence of hydrophobic association and phase separation with lower critical solution temperature (LCST) in aqueous solutions of polymers carrying short hydrophobic chains at both chain ends (telechelic associating polymers). The LCST of these solutions is found to decrease along the sol/gel transition curve as a result of both end-chain association (association-induced phase separation) and direct hydrophobic interaction of the end chains with water. The authors relate the magnitude of the LCST decrease to a hydration cooperativity parameter sigma. The LCST decreases substantially (approximately 100 K) in the case of random hydration (sigma=1), whereas only a small shift (approximately 5-10 K) occurs in the case of cooperative hydration (sigma=0.3). The molecular weight dependence of the LCST drop is studied in detail in each case. The results are compared with experimental observations of the cloud points of telechelic poly(ethylene oxide) solutions, in which random hydration predominates, and of telechelic poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) solutions, in which cooperative hydration prevails.

In vitro evaluation of the mucoadhesive properties of polysaccharide-based nanoparticulate oral drug delivery systems

Impedance quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) measurements were performed in order to assess the mucoadhesive properties of hydrophobically modified (HM) derivatives of dextran (DEX), with an average molecular weight of 10,000 Da, and of hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC), with an average molecular weight of 80,000 Da. The measurements involved (1) treatment of a hydrophobic surface with bovine submaxillary gland mucin (BSM) under various pH conditions (2.0-8.0) and (2) treatment of the BSM layer with buffer solutions of the amphiphilic polysaccharides (pH 3.0 and 7.0). Control measurements were carried out with DEX, HPC, and chitosan (CH) used as a model mucoadhesive polymer. All HM-polysaccharides were shown to adsorb onto a BSM layer, the extent of adsorption increasing with increasing hydrophobicity of the samples. Under the same conditions, HPC and CH interacted with the BSM layer, but DEX showed no affinity to BSM. All the results suggest that HM-polysaccharide micellar systems have the potential of enhancing the bioavailability of poorly adsorbed drugs in peroral delivery.