Brain Volumes at Term-Equivalent Age in Preterm Infants: Imaging Biomarkers for Neurodevelopmental Outcome through Early School Age

Beyond motor learning: Insights from infant magnetic resonance imaging on the critical role of the cerebellum in behavioral development

Although the cerebellum is now recognized for its crucial role in non-motor functions such as language, perceptual processes, social communication, and executive function in adults, it is often overlooked in studies of non-motor behavioral development in infancy. Recent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) research increasingly shows the cerebellum is key to understanding the emergence of complex human behaviors and neurodevelopmental conditions. This review summarizes studies from diverse MRI modalities that link early cerebellar development from birth to age two with emerging non-motor behaviors and psychiatric symptomatology. Our focus centered on both term and preterm infants, excluding studies of perinatal injury and cerebellar pathology. We conclude that the cerebellum is implicated in many non-motor behaviors and implicit learning mechanisms in infancy. The field's current limitations include inconsistencies in study design, a paucity of gold-standard infant neuroimaging tools, and treatment of the cerebellum as a uniform structure. Moving forward, the cerebellum should be considered a structure of greater interest to the developmental neuroimaging community. Studies should test developmental hypotheses about the behavioral roles of specific cerebro-cerebellar circuits, and theoretical frameworks such as Olson's "model switch" hypothesis of cerebellar learning. Large-scale, longitudinal, well-powered neuroimaging studies of typical and preterm development will be key.

Impact of high maternal body mass index on fetal cerebral cortical and cerebellar volumes

OBJECTIVES

Maternal obesity increases a child's risk of neurodevelopmental impairment. However, little is known about the impact of maternal obesity on fetal brain development.

METHODS

We prospectively recruited 20 healthy pregnant women across the range of pre-pregnancy or first-trimester body mass index (BMI) and performed fetal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of their healthy singleton fetuses. We examined correlations between early pregnancy maternal BMI and regional brain volume of living fetuses using volumetric MRI analysis.

RESULTS

Of 20 fetuses, there were 8 males and 12 females (median gestational age at MRI acquisition was 24.3 weeks, range: 19.7-33.3 weeks, median maternal age was 33.3 years, range: 22.0-37.4 years). There were no significant differences in clinical demographics between overweight (OW, 25≤BMI<30)/obese (OB, BMI≥30 kg/m2) (n=12) and normal BMI (18.5≤BMI<25) (n=8) groups. Fetuses in the OW/OB group had significantly larger left cortical plate (p=0.0003), right cortical plate (p=0.0002), and whole cerebellum (p=0.049) compared to the normal BMI group. In the OW/OB BMI group, cortical plate volume was larger relative to other brain regions after 28 weeks.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study supports the concept that maternal obesity impacts fetal brain volume, detectable via MRI in living fetuses using quantitative analysis.

The relationship between early life EEG and brain MRI in preterm infants: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review the literature on the associations between electroencephalogram (EEG) and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measures in preterm infants (gestational age < 37 weeks).

METHODS

A comprehensive search was performed in PubMed and EMBASE databases up to February 12th, 2024. Non-relevant studies were eliminated following the PRISMA guidelines.

RESULTS

Ten out of 991 identified studies were included. Brain MRI metrics used in these studies include volumes, cortical features, microstructural integrity, visual assessments, and cerebral linear measurements. EEG parameters were classified as qualitative (Burdjalov maturity score, seizure burden, and background activity) or quantitative (discontinuity, spectral content, amplitude, and connectivity). Among them, discontinuity and the Burdjalov score were most frequently examined. Higher discontinuity was associated with reduced brain volume, cortical surface, microstructural integrity, and linear measurements. The Burdjalov score related to brain maturation qualitatively assessed on MRI. No other consistent correlations could be established due to the variability across studies.

CONCLUSIONS

The reviewed studies utilized a variety of EEG and MRI measurements, while discontinuity and the Burdjalov score stood out as significant indicators of structural brain development.

SIGNIFICANCE

This review, for the first time, provides an extensive overview of EEG-MRI associations in preterm infants, potentially facilitating their clinical application.

Effects of Anesthesia and Surgery on the Morphologic and Functional Development of the Premature Neonatal Brain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: The percentage of preterm infants requiring surgery before 44 weeks of postmenstrual age (PMA) varies between 19% and 36%. The potential impact of general anesthesia on the vulnerable developing brain of preterm infants remains unknown. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis on the impact of general anesthesia on brain integrity and neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants undergoing surgery before 44 weeks PMA was conducted. Studies were identified via a PubMed, EMBASE (Ovid), and Cochrane CENTRAL search conducted from inception until 8 March 2023, following PRISMA guidelines. Brain abnormality was assessed using MRI-based brain volume and abnormality scores. Neurodevelopment was evaluated through Bayley Infant and Toddler Development (BSID) or Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) tests. Quality was assessed via the Cochrane ROBINS-I tool and GRADE. Results: Our systematic search identified 2883 records, leading to the inclusion of 12 observational studies. Very low-quality evidence suggests that preterm infants exposed to anesthesia were more likely to show postoperative brain abnormalities on MRI (OR 2.01, 95%CI 1.24-3.25, p = 0.005). They had lower neurodevelopmental scores on the BSID II and III (psychomotor developmental index: mean difference (MD) -10.98; 95%CI -12.04 to -9.91; p < 0.001 and cognitive composite score: (MD) -10.11; 95%CI -11.06 to -9.16; p < 0.001 at two years of age compared to preterm infants not exposed to anesthesia. Conclusion: Exposure to surgery and anesthesia before term age is associated with brain abnormalities and neurodevelopmental delay at two years, but conclusions are limited by low evidence quality, uncontrolled confounders, and the methodological biases of the included studies; thus further robust studies are required (PROSPERO:CRD42021255907).

Comparative analysis of developmental outcomes in very preterm infants: BSID-II versus Bayley-III German norms

INTRODUCTION

After the release of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, third edition (Bayley-III), US norms, an overestimation of outcome was observed. But, the conformity between the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, second edition (BSID-II), and the Bayley-III German norms is unknown. This retrospective analysis aimed to compare outcomes of very preterm infants tested with BSID-II and Bayley-III German norms.

METHODS

Infants born from November 2007 to July 2018 were included. Exclusion criteria were death or missing outcome. Infants underwent testing with either BSID-II until December 2013 or Bayley-III from January 2014 onward, at 12 and/or 24 months. BSID-II Mental Developmental Index (MDI) was compared to Bayley-III cognitive score and a combined Bayley-Score (CB-III) consisting of the cognitive and language composite score. BSID-II Psychomotor Developmental Index (PDI) was compared to Bayley-III motor composite score. Abnormal outcomes were defined as scores <85 (delay) or <70 (impairment).

RESULTS

649 infants were included. At 12 months, the Bayley-III cohort achieved higher scores in all domains compared to the BSID-II cohort (all p<0.05), with lower rates of motor delay in the Bayley-III cohort (p<0.001). At 24 months, only Bayley-III motor composite scores were higher than the BSID-II PDI (p<0.001). Rates of cognitive impairment were higher in the Bayley-III cohort (p = 0.013).

INTERPRETATION

Our findings indicate that the Bayley-III German norms effectively identify children needing interventions, particularly at 24 months corrected age. This supports both clinical application and scientific comparability with the BSID-II.

The neonatal gut microbiota: A role in the encephalopathy of prematurity

Preterm birth correlates with brain dysmaturation and neurocognitive impairment. The gut microbiome associates with behavioral outcomes in typical development, but its relationship with neurodevelopment in preterm infants is unknown. We characterize fecal microbiome in a cohort of 147 neonates enriched for very preterm birth using 16S-based and shotgun metagenomic sequencing. Delivery mode strongly correlates with the preterm microbiome shortly after birth. Low birth gestational age, infant sex assigned at birth, and antibiotics associate with microbiome composition at neonatal intensive care unit discharge. We integrate these data with term-equivalent structural and diffusion brain MRI. Bacterial community composition associates with MRI features of encephalopathy of prematurity. Particularly, abundances of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. correlate with microstructural parameters in deep and cortical gray matter. Metagenome functional capacity analyses suggest that these bacteria may interact with brain microstructure via tryptophan and propionate metabolism. This study indicates that the gut microbiome associates with brain development following preterm birth.

Chronic Inflammation Offers Hints About Viable Therapeutic Targets for Preeclampsia and Potentially Related Offspring Sequelae

The combination of hypertension with systemic inflammation during pregnancy is a hallmark of preeclampsia, but both processes also convey dynamic information about its antecedents and correlates (e.g., fetal growth restriction) and potentially related offspring sequelae. Causal inferences are further complicated by the increasingly frequent overlap of preeclampsia, fetal growth restriction, and multiple indicators of acute and chronic inflammation, with decreased gestational length and its correlates (e.g., social vulnerability). This complexity prompted our group to summarize information from mechanistic studies, integrated with key clinical evidence, to discuss the possibility that sustained or intermittent systemic inflammation-related phenomena offer hints about viable therapeutic targets, not only for the prevention of preeclampsia, but also the neurobehavioral and other developmental deficits that appear to be overrepresented in surviving offspring. Importantly, we feel that carefully designed hypothesis-driven observational studies are necessary if we are to translate the mechanistic evidence into child health benefits, namely because multiple pregnancy disorders might contribute to heightened risks of neuroinflammation, arrested brain development, or dysconnectivity in survivors who exhibit developmental problems later in life.

Multilabel SegSRGAN-A framework for parcellation and morphometry of preterm brain in MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a powerful tool for observing and assessing the properties of brain tissue and structures. In particular, in the context of neonatal care, MR images can be used to analyze neurodevelopmental problems that may arise in premature newborns. However, the intrinsic properties of newborn MR images, combined with the high variability of MR acquisition in a clinical setting, result in complex and heterogeneous images. Segmentation methods dedicated to the processing of clinical data are essential for obtaining relevant biomarkers. In this context, the design of quality control protocols for the associated segmentation is a cornerstone for guaranteeing the accuracy and usefulness of these inferred biomarkers. In recent work, we have proposed a new method, SegSRGAN, designed for super-resolution reconstruction and segmentation of specific brain structures. In this article, we first propose an extension of SegSRGAN from binary segmentation to multi-label segmentation, leading then to a partitioning of an MR image into several labels, each corresponding to a specific brain tissue/area. Secondly, we propose a segmentation quality control protocol designed to assess the performance of the proposed method with regard to this specific parcellation task in neonatal MR imaging. In particular, we combine scores derived from expert analysis, morphometric measurements and topological properties of the structures studied. This segmentation quality control can enable clinicians to select reliable segmentations for clinical analysis, starting with correlations between perinatal risk factors, regional volumes and specific dimensions of cognitive development. Based on this protocol, we are investigating the strengths and weaknesses of SegSRGAN and its potential suitability for clinical research in the context of morphometric analysis of brain structure in preterm infants, and to potentially design new biomarkers of neurodevelopment. The proposed study focuses on MR images from the EPIRMEX dataset, collected as part of a national cohort study. In particular, this work represents a first step towards the design of 3-dimensional neonatal brain morphometry based on segmentation. The (free and open-source) code of multilabel SegSRGAN is publicly available at the following URL: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12659424.

Synthetic magnetic resonance-based relaxometry and brain volume: cutoff values for predicting neurocognitive outcomes in very preterm infants

BACKGROUND

Early neurorehabilitation can enhance neurocognitive outcomes in very preterm infants (<32 weeks), and conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is commonly used to assess neonatal brain injury; however, the predictive value for neurodevelopmental delay is limited. Timely predictive quantitative biomarkers are needed to improve early identification and management of infants at risk of neurodevelopmental delay.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the potential of quantitative synthetic MRI measurements at term-equivalent age as predictive biomarkers of neurodevelopmental impairment and establish practical cutoff values to guide clinical decision-making.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This retrospective study included 93 very preterm infants who underwent synthetic MRI at term-equivalent age between January 2017 and September 2020. Clinical outcomes were assessed using the Bayley-III scale of infant development (mean age 2.1 years). The predictive value for impaired development was analyzed using receiver operating characteristic curves for synthetic MRI-based volumetry and T1 and T2 relaxation measurements.

RESULTS

The T1 relaxation time in the posterior limb of the internal capsule was a potent predictor of severe (sensitivity, 92%; specificity, 80%; area under the curve (AUC), 0.91) and mild or severe (AUC, 0.75) developmental impairment. T2 relaxation time in the posterior limb of the internal capsule was a significant predictor of severe impairment (AUC, 0.76), whereas the brain parenchymal volume was a significant predictor of severe (AUC, 0.72) and mild or severe impairment (AUC, 0.71) outperforming the reported qualitative MRI scores (AUC, 0.66).

CONCLUSION

The proposed cutoff values for T1 relaxation time in the posterior limb of the internal capsule and for total brain volume measurements, derived from synthetic MRI, show promise as predictors of both mild and severe neurodevelopmental impairment in very preterm infants.

Severe Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia Adversely Affects Brain Growth in Preterm Infants

INTRODUCTION

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is associated with neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm infants, but its effect on brain growth in preterm infants after the neonatal period is unknown. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of severe BPD on brain growth of preterm infants from term to 18 months of corrected age (CA).

METHODS

Sixty-three preterm infants (42 with severe BPD and 21 without severe BPD) who underwent magnetic resonance imaging at term equivalent age (TEA) and 18 months of CA were studied by using the Infant Brain Extraction and Analysis Toolbox (iBEAT). We measured segmented brain volumes and compared brain volume and brain growth velocity between the severe BPD group and the non-severe BPD group.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in brain volumes at TEA between the groups. However, the brain volumes of the total brain and cerebral white matter in the severe BPD group were significantly smaller than those in the non-severe BPD group at 18 months of CA. The brain growth velocities from TEA to 18 months of CA in the total brain, cerebral cortex, and cerebral white matter in the severe BPD group were lower than those in the non-severe BPD group.

CONCLUSION

Brain growth in preterm infants with severe BPD from TEA age to 18 months of CA is less than that in preterm infants without severe BPD.

Assessment of brain structure and volume reveals neurodevelopmental abnormalities in preterm infants with low-grade intraventricular hemorrhage

There is increasing evidence of abnormal neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants with low-grade intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH). The purpose of the study was to explore whether brain microstructure and volume are associated with neuro-behavioral outcomes at 40 weeks corrected gestational age in preterm infants with low-grade IVH. MR imaging at term-equivalent age (TEA) was performed in 25 preterm infants with mild IVH (Papile grading I/II) and 40 control subjects without IVH. These subjects all had neonatal behavioral neurological assessment (NBNA) at 40 weeks' corrected age. Microstructure and volume evaluation of the brain were performed by using diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI) and Synthetic MRI. Correlations among microstructure parameters, volume, and developmental outcomes were explored by using Spearman's correlation. In preterm infants with low-grade IVH, the volume of brain parenchymal fraction (BPF) was reduced. In addition, mean kurtosis (MK), fractional anisotropy (FA), radial kurtosis (RK), axial kurtosis (AK) in several major brain regions were reduced, while mean diffusivity (MD) was increased (P < 0.05). BPF, RK in the cerebellum, MK in the genu of the corpus callosum, and MK in the thalamus of preterm infants with low-grade IVH were associated with lower NBNA scores (r = 0.831, 0.836, 0.728, 0.772, P < 0.05). DKI and Synthetic MRI can quantitatively evaluate the microstructure alterations and brain volumes in preterm infants with low-grade IVH, which provides clinicians with a more comprehensive and accurate neurobehavioral assessment of preterm infants with low-grade IVH.

Fetal neuroimaging applications for diagnosis and counseling of brain anomalies: Current practice and future diagnostic strategies

Advances in fetal brain neuroimaging, especially fetal neurosonography and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), allow safe and accurate anatomical assessments of fetal brain structures that serve as a foundation for prenatal diagnosis and counseling regarding fetal brain anomalies. Fetal neurosonography strategically assesses fetal brain anomalies suspected by screening ultrasound. Fetal brain MRI has unique technological features that overcome the anatomical limits of smaller fetal brain size and the unpredictable variable of intrauterine motion artifact. Recent studies of fetal brain MRI provide evidence of improved diagnostic and prognostic accuracy, beginning with prenatal diagnosis. Despite technological advances over the last several decades, the combined use of different qualitative structural biomarkers has limitations in providing an accurate prognosis. Quantitative analyses of fetal brain MRIs offer measurable imaging biomarkers that will more accurately associate with clinical outcomes. First-trimester ultrasound opens new opportunities for risk assessment and fetal brain anomaly diagnosis at the earliest time in pregnancy. This review includes a case vignette to illustrate how fetal brain MRI results interpreted by the fetal neurologist can improve diagnostic perspectives. The strength and limitations of conventional ultrasound and fetal brain MRI will be compared with recent research advances in quantitative methods to better correlate fetal neuroimaging biomarkers of neuropathology to predict functional childhood deficits. Discussion of these fetal sonogram and brain MRI advances will highlight the need for further interdisciplinary collaboration using complementary skills to continue improving clinical decision-making following precision medicine principles.

Association between cortical thickness and cognitive ability in very preterm school-age children

Very preterm children, born before 32 weeks of gestation, are at risk for impaired cognitive function, mediated by several risk factors. Cognitive impairment can be measured by various neurodevelopmental assessments and is closely associated with structural alterations of brain morphometry, such as cortical thickness. However, the association between structural alterations and high-order cognitive function remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the neurodevelopmental associations between brain structural changes and cognitive abilities in very preterm and full-term children. Cortical thickness was assessed in 37 very preterm and 24 full-term children aged 6 years. Cortical thickness analysis of structural T1-weighted images was performed using Advanced Normalization Tools. Associations between cortical thickness and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children were evaluated by regression analysis based on ordinary least square estimation. Compared with full-term children, very preterm children showed significant differences in cortical thickness, variously associated with cognitive abilities in several brain regions. Perceptual reasoning indices were broadly correlated with cortical thickness in very preterm and full-term children. These findings provide important insights into neurodevelopment and its association with cortical thickness, which may serve as a biomarker in predictive models for neurodevelopmental diagnosis of high-order cognitive function.

Retrospective analysis of neurological findings in esophageal atresia: Allostatic load of disease complexity, cumulative sedation, and anesthesia exposure

BACKGROUND

There is limited knowledge regarding the impact of perioperative critical care on frequency of neurological imaging findings following esophageal atresia (EA) repair.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study of infants (n = 70) following EA repair at a single institution (2009-2020). Sex, gestational age at birth, type of surgical repair, underlying disease severity, and frequency of neurologic imaging findings were obtained. We quantified the length of postoperative pain/sedation treatment and anesthesia exposure in the first year of life. Data were presented as numerical sums and percentages, while associations were measured using Spearman's Rho.

RESULTS

Vertebral/spinal cord imaging was performed in all infants revealing abnormalities in 44% (31/70). Cranial/brain imaging findings were identified in 67% (22/33) of infants in the context of clinically indicated imaging (47%; 33/70). Long-gap EA patients (n = 16) received 10 times longer postoperative pain/sedation treatment and twice the anesthesia exposure compared with short-gap EA patients (n = 54). The frequency of neurologic imaging findings did not correlate with underlying disease severity scores, length of pain/sedation treatment, or cumulative anesthesia exposure. Lack of associations between clinical measures and imaging findings should be interpreted with caution given possible underestimation of cranial/brain findings.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that all infants with EA undergo brain imaging in addition to routine spinal imaging given the high burden of abnormal brain/cranial findings in our cohort. Quantification of pain/sedation and anesthesia exposure in long-gap EA patients could be used as indirect markers in future studies assessing the risk of neurological sequelae as evidenced by early abnormalities on brain imaging.

Relationship of early brain growth pattern measured by ultrasound with neurological outcome at two years of age in very low birth weight infants

The purpose of this study is to define the impact of early brain growth trajectory in very low birth weight infants (VLBWI) on neurological prognosis at 2 years, assessed using sequential ultrasound (US) scans. This is a prospective cohort study with consecutive inclusion of VLBWI ≤ 32 weeks gestational age and ≤ 1500 g at birth. Total brain volume (TBV) was assessed using sequential 3D-US from birth to discharge. Prognosis at 2 years (corrected age) was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development Third Edition. TBV showed slower growth with postmenstrual age (PMA) in those VLBWI who had an adverse cognitive prognosis compared to those with good cognitive prognosis (mean difference in TBV between prognostic groups from 4.56 cm3 at 28 weeks to 42.58 cm3 at 43 weeks) as well as in those with adverse language prognosis (mean difference in TBV from 2.21 cm3 at 28 weeks to 26.98 cm3 at 43 weeks) although other variables showed more impact than TBV on language prognosis (gestational age at birth, brain injury at term, and socioeconomic status). No association was found between TBV and motor prognosis. Brain growth rate was also significantly higher in those VLBWI who presented good cognitive scores (18.78 + (0.33 × (PMA-33)) cm3/week) compared to those with adverse cognitive outcome (13.73 + (0.64 × (PMA-33)) cm3/week).  Conclusion: Early altered brain growth is associated with poor cognitive prognosis at 2 years of age. Using sequential US monitoring, we can detect early brain growth deviation in patients who will have adverse cognitive outcomes. What is known: • The prediction of neurodevelopmental outcome of VLBWI is mostly based on the presence of brain injury in US and structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at term. • Some studies have related brain volume measured on MRI at term with neurodevelopment outcome. What is new: • VLBWI with adverse cognitive prognosis at two years of age present smaller brain volumes detectable by sequential US during NICU admission. • Brain volume can be estimated from 2D and 3D US and has prognostic value in VLBWI.

Preterm birth and educational disadvantage: Heterogeneous effects

Although preterm birth is the leading cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality in advanced economies, evidence about the consequences of prematurity in later life is limited. Using Swedish registers for cohorts born 1982-94 (N  =  1,087,750), we examine the effects of preterm birth on school grades at age 16 using sibling fixed effects models. We further examine how school grades are affected by degree of prematurity and the compensating roles of family socio-economic resources and characteristics of school districts. Our results show that the negative effects of preterm birth are observed mostly among children born extremely preterm (<28 weeks); children born moderately preterm (32-<37 weeks) suffer no ill effects. We do not find any evidence for a moderating effect of parental socio-economic resources. Children born extremely preterm and in the top decile of school districts achieve as good grades as children born at full term in an average school district.Supplementary material for this article is available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00324728.2022.2080247.

The Association of Dexamethasone and Hydrocortisone with Cerebellar Growth in Premature Infants

OBJECTIVES

Corticosteroids are used to prevent or treat lung disease of prematurity. While neurological side effects have been reported, detailed effects on cerebellar growth are unknown. This study aimed to compare cerebellar growth in premature infants who received dexamethasone or hydrocortisone to premature infants who did not receive postnatal corticosteroids.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective case-control study in infants born at a gestational age of <29 weeks and admitted to two level 3 neonatal intensive care units. Exclusion criteria were severe congenital anomalies and cerebellar or severe supratentorial lesions. Infants were treated with dexamethasone (unit 1) or hydrocortisone (unit 2) for chronic lung disease. Controls (unit 1) did not receive postnatal corticosteroids. Sequential head circumference (HC) and ultrasound measurements of transcerebellar diameter (TCD), biparietal diameter (BPD), and corpus callosum-fastigium length (CCFL) were performed until 40 weeks' postmenstrual age (PMA). Growth was assessed using linear mixed models correcting for PMA at measurement, sex, HC z-score at birth, and a propensity score indicating illness severity. Group differences before treatment were assessed using linear regression.

RESULTS

346 infants were included (68 dexamethasone, 37 hydrocortisone, 241 controls). Before starting corticosteroids, TCD, BPD, and HC measurements did not differ between patients and controls at a comparable PMA. After starting treatment, both types of corticosteroid had a negative association with TCD growth. BPD, CCFL, and HC growth were not negatively affected.

CONCLUSION

Administration of dexamethasone and hydrocortisone are both associated with impaired cerebellar growth in premature infants without evident negative associations with cerebral growth.

The Effects of Maternal Perinatal Depression on Child IQ: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Maternal perinatal depression has been shown to have long lasting effects on children's development. Studies have described the relationship of perinatal depression on children's cognition, especially negative effects on intelligence quotient (IQ). However, a recent examination of the current studies to discern the patterns and strength of associations between perinatal depression and child IQ is not available.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this systematic review is to discern the effects of perinatal depression, prenatally and within the first 12 months of the postpartum period, on the IQ of the child aged 0-18 years old.

METHODS

We searched the electronic databases: PubMed and CINAHL. We identified 1633 studies, and included 17 studies in the final review based on pre-determined criteria. After the data was extracted, we assessed the strength of the study using the national heart, lung, and blood institute quality assessment tool for observational cohort and cross-sectional studies. This systematic review had a total sample of 10,757 participants.

RESULTS

Across the studies, we identified a relationship between limited maternal responsiveness due to postpartum depression and a decrease in full IQ scores in younger children. Male children were found to be more sensitive to the postpartum depression, resulting in a decrease in IQs, in comparison to female children.

CONCLUSIONS

Policies should be implemented to identify women suffering from perinatal depression to mitigate the effects of the disorder for both the mother and her child.

Evolution of grey matter injury over 21 days after hypoxia-ischaemia in preterm fetal sheep

Reduced grey matter volume in preterm infants is associated with later disability, but its time course and relationship with white matter injury are not well understood. We recently showed that moderate-severe hypoxia-ischaemia (HI) in preterm fetal sheep led to severe cystic injury 2-3 weeks later. In the same cohort we now show profound hippocampal neuronal loss from 3 days after HI. By contrast, reduction in cortical area and perimeter developed much more slowly, with maximum reduction at day 21. There was transient upregulation of cleaved caspase-3-positive apoptosis in the cortex at day 3 but no change in neuronal density or macroscopic injury of the cortex. Both microglia and astrocytes were transiently upregulated in the grey matter. EEG power was initially profoundly suppressed but partially recovered by 21 days of recovery, and final power was correlated with white matter area (p < 0.001, r² = 0.75, F = 24.19), cortical area (p = 0.004, r² = 0.44, F = 11.90) and hippocampi area (p = 0.049, r² = 0.23, F = 4.58). In conclusion, the present study suggests that in preterm fetal sheep, hippocampal injury is established within a few days of acute HI, but impaired cortical growth develops slowly, in a similar time course to severe white matter injury.

Delayed Surgical Closure of the Patent Ductus Arteriosus: Does the Brain Pay the Price?

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relation between duration of hemodynamically significant patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), cerebral oxygenation, magnetic resonance imaging-determined brain growth, and 2-year neurodevelopmental outcome in a cohort of infants born preterm whose duct was closed surgically.

STUDY DESIGN

Infants born preterm at <30 weeks of gestational age who underwent surgical ductal closure between 2008 and 2018 (n = 106) were included in this observational study. Near infrared spectroscopy-monitored cerebral oxygen saturation during and up to 24 hours after ductal closure and a Bayley III developmental test at the corrected age of 2 years is the institutional standard of care for this patient group. Infants also had magnetic resonance imaging at term-equivalent age.

RESULTS

In total, 90 infants fulfilled the inclusion criteria (median [range]: 25.9 weeks [24.0-28.9]; 856 g [540-1350]. Days of a PDA ranged from 1 to 41. Multivariable linear regression analysis showed that duration of a PDA negatively influenced cerebellar growth and motor and cognitive outcome at 2 years of corrected age.

CONCLUSIONS

Prolonged duration of a PDA in this surgical cohort is associated with reduced cerebellar growth and suboptimal neurodevelopmental outcome.

Breast Milk Exposure is Associated With Cortical Maturation in Preterm Infants

OBJECTIVE

Breast milk exposure is associated with improved neurocognitive outcomes following preterm birth but the neural substrates linking breast milk with outcome are uncertain. We tested the hypothesis that high versus low breast milk exposure in preterm infants results in cortical morphology that more closely resembles that of term-born infants.

METHODS

We studied 135 preterm (<32 weeks' gestation) and 77 term infants. Feeding data were collected from birth until hospital discharge and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed at term-equivalent age. Cortical indices (volume, thickness, surface area, gyrification index, sulcal depth, and curvature) and diffusion parameters (fractional anisotropy [FA], mean diffusivity [MD], radial diffusivity [RD], axial diffusivity [AD], neurite density index [NDI], and orientation dispersion index [ODI]) were compared between preterm infants who received exclusive breast milk for <75% of inpatient days, preterm infants who received exclusive breast milk for ≥75% of inpatient days and term-born controls. To investigate a dose response effect, we performed linear regression using breast milk exposure quartile weighted by propensity scores.

RESULTS

In preterm infants, high breast milk exposure was associated with reduced cortical gray matter volume (d = 0.47, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.14 to 0.94, p = 0.014), thickness (d = 0.42, 95% CI = 0.08 to 0.84, p = 0.039), and RD (d = 0.38, 95% CI = 0.002 to 0.77, p = 0.039), and increased FA (d = -0.38, 95% CI = -0.74 to -0.01, p = 0.037) after adjustment for age at MRI, which was similar to the cortical phenotype observed in term-born controls. Breast milk exposure quartile was associated with cortical volume (ß = -0.192, 95% CI = -0.342 to -0.042, p = 0.017), FA (ß = 0.223, 95% CI = 0.075 to 0.372, p = 0.007), and RD (ß = -0.225, 95% CI = -0.373 to -0.076, p = 0.007) following adjustment for age at birth, age at MRI, and weighted by propensity scores, suggesting a dose effect.

INTERPRETATION

High breast milk exposure following preterm birth is associated with a cortical imaging phenotype that more closely resembles the brain morphology of term-born infants and effects appear to be dose-dependent. ANN NEUROL 2023;93:591-603.

Behavioral outcome of very preterm children at 5 years of age: Prognostic utility of brain tissue volumes at term-equivalent-age, perinatal, and environmental factors

OBJECTIVE

Prematurity is associated with a high risk of long-term behavioral problems. This study aimed to assess the prognostic utility of volumetric brain data at term-equivalent-age (TEA), clinical perinatal factors, and parental social economic risk in the prediction of the behavioral outcome at 5 years in a cohort of very preterm infants (VPT, <32 gestational weeks).

METHODS

T2-weighted magnetic resonance brain images of 80 VPT children were acquired at TEA and automatically segmented into cortical gray matter, deep subcortical gray matter, white matter (WM), cerebellum (CB), and cerebrospinal fluid. The gray matter structure of the amygdala was manually segmented. Children were examined at 5 years of age with a behavioral assessment, using the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ). The utility of brain volumes at TEA, perinatal factors, and social economic risk for the prediction of behavioral outcome was investigated using support vector machine classifiers and permutation feature importance.

RESULTS

The predictive modeling of the volumetric data showed that WM, amygdala, and CB volumes were the best predictors of the SDQ emotional symptoms score. Among the perinatal factors, sex, sepsis, and bronchopulmonary dysplasia were the best predictors of the hyperactivity/inattention score. When combining the social economic risk with volumetric and perinatal factors, we were able to accurately predict the emotional symptoms score. Finally, social economic risk was positively correlated with the scores of conduct problems and peer problems.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides information on the relation between brain structure at TEA and clinical perinatal factors with behavioral outcome at age 5 years in VPT children. Nevertheless, the overall predictive power of our models is relatively modest, and further research is needed to identify factors associated with subsequent behavioral problems in this population.

Brain Development and Maternal Behavior in Relation to Cognitive and Language Outcomes in Preterm-Born Children

BACKGROUND

Children born very preterm (≤32 weeks gestational age) show poorer cognitive and language development compared with their term-born peers. The importance of supportive maternal responses to the child's cues for promoting neurodevelopment is well established. However, little is known about whether supportive maternal behavior can buffer the association of early brain dysmaturation with cognitive and language performance.

METHODS

Infants born very preterm (N = 226) were recruited from the neonatal intensive care unit for a prospective, observational cohort study. Chart review (e.g., size at birth, postnatal infection) was conducted from birth to discharge. Magnetic resonance imaging, including diffusion tensor imaging, was acquired at approximately 32 weeks postmenstrual age and again at term-equivalent age. Fractional anisotropy, a quantitative measure of brain maturation, was obtained from 11 bilateral regions of interest in the cortical gray matter. At 3 years (n = 187), neurodevelopmental testing (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III) was administered, and parent-child interaction was filmed. Maternal behavior was scored using the Emotional Availability Scale-IV. A total of 146 infants with neonatal brain imaging and follow-up data were included for analysis. Generalized estimating equations were used to examine whether maternal support interacted with mean fractional anisotropy values to predict Cognitive and Language scores at 3 years, accounting for confounding neonatal and maternal factors.

RESULTS

Higher maternal support significantly moderated cortical fractional anisotropy values at term-equivalent age to predict higher Cognitive (interaction term β = 2.01, p = .05) and Language (interaction term β = 1.85, p = .04) scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that supportive maternal behavior following early brain dysmaturation may provide an opportunity to promote optimal neurodevelopment in children born very preterm.

Cognitive and motor development in preterm children from 6 to 36 months of age: Trajectories, risk factors and predictability

BACKGROUND

Although numerous studies have examined the development of preterm children born very low birth weight (VLBW, birth body weight < 1500 g), variations of developmental progress within individuals have rarely been explored. The aim of this research was to examine the cognitive and motor trajectories in preterm children born VLBW at early ages and to assess the risk factors and predictability of these trajectories.

METHOD

Five hundred and eighty preterm infants born VLBW from three cohort studies (2003 to 2014) were prospectively assessed their mental and motor development using the Bayley Scales at 6, 12, 24, and 36 months, and cognitive, motor and behavioral outcomes using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children and the Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 1.5-5 at 4 years of age.

RESULTS

Preterm children born VLBW manifested three cognitive patterns (stably normal [64.0 %], deteriorating [31.4 %], and persistently delayed [4.6 %]) and four motor patterns (above average [6.3 %], stably normal [60.0 %], deteriorating [28.5 %], and persistently delayed [5.2 %]) during 6-36 months. Low birth body weight, stage III-IV retinopathy of prematurity and low parental socio-economic status were associated with the deteriorating patterns; prolonged hospitalization and major brain damage were additionally associated with the persistently delayed patterns. Furthermore, the cognitive and motor deteriorating pattern was each predictive of cognitive and motor impairment at 4 years of age; whereas, the persistently delayed patterns were predictive of multiple impairments.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Preterm children born VLBW display heterogeneous trajectories in early cognitive and motor development that predict subsequent developmental and behavioral outcomes.

Sensory-based interventions in the NICU: systematic review of effects on preterm brain development

BACKGROUND

Infants born preterm are known to be at risk for abnormal brain development and adverse neurobehavioral outcomes. To improve early neurodevelopment, several non-pharmacological interventions have been developed and implemented in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Sensory-based interventions seem to improve short-term neurodevelopmental outcomes in the inherently stressful NICU environment. However, how this type of intervention affects brain development in the preterm population remains unclear.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted for published studies in the past 20 years reporting the effects of early, non-pharmacological, sensory-based interventions on the neonatal brain after preterm birth.

RESULTS

Twelve randomized controlled trials (RCT) reporting short-term effects of auditory, tactile, and multisensory interventions were included after the screening of 1202 articles. Large heterogeneity was identified among studies in relation to both types of intervention and outcomes. Three areas of focus for sensory interventions were identified: auditory-based, tactile-based, and multisensory interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

Diversity in interventions and outcome measures challenges the possibility to perform an integrative synthesis of results and to translate these for evidence-based clinical practice. This review identifies gaps in the literature and methodological challenges for the implementation of RCTs of sensory interventions in the NICU.

IMPACT

This paper represents the first systematic review to investigate the effect of non-pharmacological, sensory-based interventions in the NICU on neonatal brain development. Although reviewed RCTs present evidence on the impact of such interventions on the neonatal brain following preterm birth, it is not yet possible to formulate clear guidelines for clinical practice. This review integrates existing literature on the effect of sensory-based interventions on the brain after preterm birth and identifies methodological challenges for the conduction of high-quality RCTs.

Combining advanced MRI and EEG techniques better explains long-term motor outcome after very preterm birth

BACKGROUND

Preterm born children are at high risk for adverse motor neurodevelopment. The aim of this study was to establish the relationship between motor outcome and advanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) measures.

METHODS

In a prospective cohort study of 64 very preterm born children, the motor outcome was assessed at 9.83 (SD 0.70) years. Volumetric MRI, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and EEG were acquired at 10.85 (SD 0.49) years. We investigated associations between motor outcome and brain volumes (white matter, deep gray matter, cerebellum, and ventricles), white matter integrity (fractional anisotropy and mean, axial and radial diffusivity), and brain activity (upper alpha (A2) functional connectivity and relative A2 power). The independence of associations with motor outcome was investigated with a final model. For each technique, the measure with the strongest association was selected to avoid multicollinearity.

RESULTS

Ventricular volume, radial diffusivity, mean diffusivity, relative A2 power, and A2 functional connectivity were significantly correlated to motor outcome. The final model showed that ventricular volume and relative A2 power were independently associated with motor outcome (B = -9.42 × 10^-5, p = 0.027 and B = 28.9, p = 0.007, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that a lasting interplay exists between brain structure and function that might underlie motor outcome at school age.

IMPACT

This is the first study that investigates the relationships between motor outcome and brain volumes, DTI, and brain function in preterm born children at school age. Ventricular volume and relative upper alpha power on EEG have an independent relation with motor outcome in preterm born children at school age. This suggests that there is a lasting interplay between structure and function that underlies adverse motor outcome.

Birth Spacing and Health and Socioeconomic Outcomes Across the Life Course: Evidence From the Utah Population Database

The relationship between birth interval length and child outcomes has received increased attention in recent years, but few studies have examined offspring outcomes across the life course in North America. We use data from the Utah Population Database to examine the relationship between birth intervals and short- and long-term outcomes: preterm birth, low birth weight (LBW), infant mortality, college degree attainment, occupational status, and adult mortality. Using linear regression, linear probability models, and survival analysis, we compare results from models with and without sibling comparisons. Children born after a birth interval of 9-12 months have a higher probability of LBW, preterm birth, and infant mortality both with and without sibling comparisons; longer intervals are associated with a lower probability of these outcomes. Short intervals before the birth of the next youngest sibling are also associated with LBW, preterm birth, and infant mortality both with and without sibling comparisons. This pattern raises concerns that the sibling comparison models do not fully adjust for within-family factors predicting both spacing and perinatal outcomes. In sibling comparison analyses considering long-term outcomes, not even the very shortest birth intervals are negatively associated with educational or occupational outcomes or with long-term mortality. These findings suggest that extremely short birth intervals may increase the probability of poor perinatal outcomes but that any such disadvantages disappear over the extended life course.

Advanced Brain Imaging in Preterm Infants: A Narrative Review of Microstructural and Connectomic Disruption

Preterm birth disrupts the in utero environment, preventing the brain from fully developing, thereby causing later cognitive and behavioral disorders. Such cerebral alteration occurs beneath an anatomical scale, and is therefore undetectable by conventional imagery. Prematurity impairs the microstructure and thus the histological process responsible for the maturation, including the myelination. Cerebral MRI diffusion tensor imaging sequences, based on water’s motion into the brain, allows a representation of this maturation process. Similarly, the brain’s connections become disorganized. The connectome gathers structural and anatomical white matter fibers, as well as functional networks referring to remote brain regions connected one over another. Structural and functional connectivity is illustrated by tractography and functional MRI, respectively. Their organizations consist of core nodes connected by edges. This basic distribution is already established in the fetal brain. It evolves greatly over time but is compromised by prematurity. Finally, cerebral plasticity is nurtured by a lifetime experience at microstructural and macrostructural scales. A preterm birth causes a negative and early disruption, though it can be partly mitigated by positive stimuli based on developmental neonatal care.

Head circumference, total cerebral volume and neurodevelopment in preterm neonates

OBJECTIVES

To assess the association of head circumference (HC) <10th percentile at birth and discharge from the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) with neurodevelopment in very preterm (24-32 weeks' gestational age) neonates, and to compare the association of HC and total cerebral volume (TCV) with neurodevelopmental outcomes.

DESIGN

In a prospective cohort, semiautomatically segmented TCV and manually segmented white matter injury (WMI) volumes were obtained. Multivariable regressions were used to study the association of HC and TCV with neurodevelopmental outcomes, accounting for birth gestational age, WMI and postnatal illness.

SETTING

Participants born in 2006-2013 at British Columbia Women's Hospital were recruited.

PATIENTS

168 neonates had HC measurements at birth and discharge and MRI at term-equivalent age (TEA). 143 children were assessed at 4.5 years.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Motor, cognitive and language outcomes at 4.5 years were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children Second Edition (M-ABC) and Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Third Edition Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) and Verbal IQ (VIQ).

RESULTS

Small birth HC was associated with lower M-ABC and FSIQ scores. In children with small birth HC, small discharge HC was associated with lower M-ABC, FSIQ and VIQ scores, while normal HC at discharge was no longer associated with adverse outcomes. HC strongly correlated with TCV at TEA. TCV did not correlate with outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Small birth HC is associated with poorer neurodevelopment, independent of postnatal illness and WMI. Normalisation of HC during NICU care appears to moderate this risk.

Early motor outcomes in infants with critical congenital heart disease are related to neonatal brain development and brain injury

AIM

To assess the relationship between neonatal brain development and injury with early motor outcomes in infants with critical congenital heart disease (CCHD).

METHOD

Neonatal brain magnetic resonance imaging was performed after open-heart surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. Cortical grey matter (CGM), unmyelinated white matter, and cerebellar volumes, as well as white matter motor tract fractional anisotropy and mean diffusivity were assessed. White matter injury (WMI) and arterial ischaemic stroke (AIS) with corticospinal tract (CST) involvement were scored. Associations with motor outcomes at 3, 9, and 18 months were corrected for repeated cardiac surgery.

RESULTS

Fifty-one infants (31 males, 20 females) were included prospectively. Median age at neonatal surgery and postoperative brain magnetic resonance imaging was 7 days (interquartile range [IQR] 5-11d) and 15 days (IQR 12-21d) respectively. Smaller CGM and cerebellar volumes were associated with lower fine motor scores at 9 months (CGM regression coefficient=0.51, 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.15-0.86; cerebellum regression coefficient=3.08, 95% CI=1.07-5.09) and 18 months (cerebellum regression coefficient=2.08, 95% CI=0.47-5.12). The fractional anisotropy and mean diffusivity of white matter motor tracts were not related with motor scores. WMI was related to lower gross motor scores at 9 months (mean difference -0.8SD, 95% CI=-1.5 to -0.2). AIS with CST involvement increased the risk of gross motor problems and muscle tone abnormalities. Cerebral palsy (n=3) was preceded by severe ischaemic brain injury.

INTERPRETATION

Neonatal brain development and injury are associated with fewer favourable early motor outcomes in infants with CCHD.

Assessment of brain two-dimensional metrics in infants born preterm at term equivalent age: Correlation of ultrasound scans with magnetic resonance imaging

CONTEXT

Developing brain imaging is a critical subject for infants born preterm. Impaired brain growth is correlated with poor neurological outcomes, regardless of overt brain lesions, such as hemorrhage or leukomalacia. As magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) remains a research tool for assessing regional brain volumes, two-dimensional metrics (2D metrics) provide a reliable estimation of brain structures. In neonatal intensive care, cerebral ultrasound (cUS) is routinely performed to assess brain integrity. This prospective work has compared US and MRI accuracy for the measurement of 2D brain metrics and identification of overt injuries.

METHODS

MRI and cUS were performed at term equivalent age (TEA) in infants born before 32 weeks of gestation (GW). Demographical data and results of serial cUS (Neonatal Intensive Care Unit [NICU]-US) performed during hospitalization were gathered from medical charts. Blinded, experienced senior doctors reviewed the scans for both standard analysis and standardized, 2D measurements. The correlation of 2D metrics and inter-/intraobserver agreements were evaluated using Pearson's coefficient, Bland-Altman plots, and intraclass coefficient (ICC), respectively.

RESULTS

In total, 102 infants born preterm were included. The performance of "TEA-cUS and NICU-cUS" when compared to "TEA-MRI and NICU-cUS" was identical for the detection of high-grade hemorrhages and close for low-grade ones. However, TEA-MRI only detected nodular lesions of the white matter (WM). No infant presented a cerebellar infarct on imaging. Intra- and inter-observer agreements were excellent for all 2D metrics except for the corpus callosum width (CCW) and anteroposterior vermis diameter. MRI and cUS showed good to excellent correlation for brain and bones biparietal diameters, corpus callosum length (CCL), transcerebellar diameters (TCDs), and lateral ventricle diameters. Measures of CCW and vermis dimensions were poorly correlated.

CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVE

The cUS is a reliable tool to assess selected 2D measurements in the developing brain. Repetition of these metrics by serial cUS during NICU stay would allow the completion of growth charts for several brain structures. Further studies will assess whether these charts are relevant markers of neurological outcome.

Serum docosahexaenoic acid levels are associated with brain volumes in extremely preterm born infants

BACKGROUND

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) are important for fetal brain growth and development. Our aim was to evaluate the association between serum DHA and AA levels and brain volumes in extremely preterm infants.

METHODS

Infants born at <28 weeks gestational age in 2013-2015, a cohort derived from a randomized controlled trial comparing two types of parenteral lipid emulsions, were included (n = 90). Serum DHA and AA levels were measured at postnatal days 1, 7, 14, and 28, and the area under the curve was calculated. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging was performed at term-equivalent age (n = 66), and volumes of six brain regions were automatically generated.

RESULTS

After MR image quality assessment and area under the curve calculation, 48 infants were included (gestational age mean [SD] 25.5 [1.4] weeks). DHA levels were positively associated with total brain (B = 7.966, p = 0.012), cortical gray matter (B = 3.653, p = 0.036), deep gray matter (B = 0.439, p = 0.014), cerebellar (B = 0.932, p = 0.003), and white matter volume (B = 3.373, p = 0.022). AA levels showed no association with brain volumes.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum DHA levels during the first 28 postnatal days were positively associated with volumes of several brain structures in extremely preterm infants at term-equivalent age.

IMPACT

Higher serum levels of DHA in the first 28 postnatal days are positively associated with brain volumes at term-equivalent age in extremely preterm born infants. Especially the most immature infants suffer from low DHA levels in the first 28 postnatal days, with little increase over time. Future research is needed to explore whether postnatal fatty acid supplementation can improve brain development and may serve as a nutritional preventive and therapeutic treatment option in extremely preterm infants.

Association between brain structural network efficiency at term-equivalent age and early development of cerebral palsy in very preterm infants

Very preterm infants (born at less than 32 weeks gestational age) are at high risk for serious motor impairments, including cerebral palsy (CP). The brain network changes that antecede the early development of CP in infants are not well characterized, and a better understanding may suggest new strategies for risk-stratification at term, which could lead to earlier access to therapies. Graph theoretical methods applied to diffusion MRI-derived brain connectomes may help quantify the organization and information transfer capacity of the preterm brain with greater nuance than overt structural or regional microstructural changes. Our aim was to shed light on the pathophysiology of early CP development, before the occurrence of early intervention therapies and other environmental confounders, to help identify the best early biomarkers of CP risk in VPT infants. In a cohort of 395 very preterm infants, we extracted cortical morphometrics and brain volumes from structural MRI and also applied graph theoretical methods to diffusion MRI connectomes, both acquired at term-equivalent age. Metrics from graph network analysis, especially global efficiency, strength values of the major sensorimotor tracts, and local efficiency of the motor nodes and novel non-motor regions were strongly inversely related to early CP diagnosis. These measures remained significantly associated with CP after correction for common risk factors of motor development, suggesting that metrics of brain network efficiency at term may be sensitive biomarkers for early CP detection. We demonstrate for the first time that in VPT infants, early CP diagnosis is anteceded by decreased brain network segregation in numerous nodes, including motor regions commonly-associated with CP and also novel regions that may partially explain the high rate of cognitive impairments concomitant with CP diagnosis. These advanced MRI biomarkers may help identify the highest risk infants by term-equivalent age, facilitating earlier interventions that are informed by early pathophysiological changes.

Duration of mechanical ventilation is more critical for brain growth than postnatal hydrocortisone in extremely preterm infants

Hydrocortisone is used in preterm infants. However, early disruption of growth velocities was observed in infants exposed to hydrocortisone. This retrospective study aimed to explore the postnatal brain growth of extremely preterm infants requiring hydrocortisone treatment as well as its association with perinatal factors. Extremely preterm infants exposed to hydrocortisone from 2011 to 2016 who survived up to 12 months were included. Each of them was matched with two infants not treated with hydrocortisone exhibiting similar gestational ages and nearly similar birth head circumferences. The outcome variables were brain tissue areas on MRIs performed at term-equivalent age and postnatal head circumference growth up to a corrected age of 12 months. Univariate and multiple regression analyses were performed. Infants treated with hydrocortisone (n=20) were matched with 40 infants not exposed to hydrocortisone. The infants exposed to hydrocortisone exhibited a lower birth weight (p=0.04) and a longer duration of mechanical ventilation (p<0.0001). Infants treated with hydrocortisone exhibited a smaller basal ganglia/thalamus area (p=0.04) at term-equivalent age and a smaller head circumference at a corrected age of 12 months (p=0.003). However, the basal ganglia/thalamus area and the postnatal brain growth were independently associated with the duration of mechanical ventilation and not with hydrocortisone. Interestingly, a significant interaction between hydrocortisone and sex was observed (p=0.04).Conclusion: This study supports previous data that indicated no obvious impact of hydrocortisone on brain growth and highlights the relationship between the severity of the neonatal course and postnatal brain growth in extremely preterm infants. What is Known: • Postnatal hydrocortisone disrupts transiently growth velocities including the head circumference growth. • Postnatal hydrocortisone has less impact on neurodevelopment than dexamethasone. What is New: • Hydrocortisone prescribed for infants in the most severe conditions did not show independent effect on brain growth up to the corrected age of 12 months. However, a different effect of hydrocortisone according to sex can't be excluded and needs further explorations. • Perinatal factors as birth weight and duration of mechanical ventilation were determinant for the subsequent brain growth.

3-D Echo Brain Volumes to Predict Neurodevelopmental Outcome in Infants: A Prospective Observational Follow-up Study

Prematurity and intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR) are risk factors for long-term poor neurodevelopmental outcomes and are associated with reductions in regional brain volumes. In this study, the aim was to determine the possible role of 3-D ultrasonography (3-DUS) volumes of whole brain, thalamus, frontal cortex and cerebellum, measured at postnatal days 30-40, as early predictors of long-term risk for neurobehavioral disorders. To this purpose, a heterogeneous population of full-term, preterm, IUGR and preterm IUGR (pre-IUGR) born individuals (n = 334), characterized by gestational age and birth weight in the ranges 24-41 wk and 860-4000 g, respectively, was followed from postnatal days 30-40 to the second year of life. At enrollment, brain volumes were measured using 3-DUS, whereas neurodevelopment was assessed at 2 y using the Griffiths III test. Cerebral volumes were strictly and significantly lower in infants characterized by a negative outcome and had excellent diagnostic accuracy. The 3-DUS volume of whole brain, thalamus, frontal cortex or cerebellum may be an early predictor of neonates at major risk for neurobehavioral disorders in later life.

Distinct effects of prematurity on MRI metrics of brain functional connectivity, activity, and structure: Univariate and multivariate analyses

Premature birth affects the developmental trajectory of the brain during a period of intense maturation with possible lifelong consequences. To better understand the effect of prematurity on brain structure and function, we performed blood‐oxygen‐level dependent (BOLD) and anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at 40 weeks of postmenstrual age on 88 newborns with variable gestational age (GA) at birth and no evident radiological alterations. We extracted measures of resting‐state functional connectivity and activity in a set of 90 cortical and subcortical brain regions through the evaluation of BOLD correlations between regions and of fractional amplitude of low‐frequency fluctuation (fALFF) within regions, respectively. Anatomical information was acquired through the assessment of regional volumes. We performed univariate analyses on each metric to examine the association with GA at birth, the spatial distribution of the effects, and the consistency across metrics. Moreover, a data‐driven multivariate analysis (i.e., Machine Learning) framework exploited the high dimensionality of the data to assess the sensitivity of each metric to the effect of premature birth. Prematurity was associated with bidirectional alterations of functional connectivity and regional volume and, to a lesser extent, of fALFF. Notably, the effects of prematurity on functional connectivity were spatially diffuse, mainly within cortical regions, whereas effects on regional volume and fALFF were more focal, involving subcortical structures. While the two analytical approaches delivered consistent results, the multivariate analysis was more sensitive in capturing the complex pattern of prematurity effects. Future studies might apply multivariate frameworks to identify premature infants at risk of a negative neurodevelopmental outcome.

Uncomplicated intraventricular hemorrhage is not associated with lower estimated cerebral volume at term age

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cerebral lesions detected using cerebral ultrasound (cUS) in very preterm infants are associated with increased risk for neurodevelopmental problems. However, uncomplicated intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) has no consistent association with poor outcome. In this study we evaluate the effect of uncomplicated IVH on estimated brain volume at term-equivalent age (TEA), using a model based on measurements made from cUS.

METHODS

We studied 2 groups of preterm infants (<32 weeks' gestational age (GA)) up to and at TEA: (1) infants with uncomplicated grades 2 or 3 IVH, (2) infants with consistently normal scans. Estimated cerebral volumes at TEA were calculated using a previously described model based on linear measurements and compared between the 2 groups using independent groups t-test or the Mann-Whitney test; p-value <0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

We assessed 95 preterm infants (18 with uncomplicated IVH and 71 with normal scans). GA and birth weight were lower in infants with uncomplicated IVH (26.8/28.7weeks, p < 0.001, 944/1082g, p < 0.05, respectively); occipital-frontal circumference at TEA was smaller in the IVH infants (34.2 vs 35.3 cm, p < 0.05). However, no significant differences at TEA were found for estimated cranial volume (383/411cc³), estimated cerebral volume (337/341cc³), Levene ventricular index (13.5/12.2 mm) or thalamo-occipital distance (21.5/20.3 mm). Statistical adjustment for the lower GA in the IVH group confirmed the absence of a significant difference in the findings.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, we found that estimated cerebral volume at TEA, based on measurements made at the bedside using cranial US, is not different between very preterm infants with consistently normal scans and those with uncomplicated grades 2 and 3 IVH.

Delayed Maturation of the Middle Cerebellar Peduncles at Near-Term Age Predicts Abnormal Neurodevelopment in Preterm Infants

BACKGROUND

The infant brain grows quickly with elaborate microstructural development during the neonatal period. The white matter, during critical periods of development, is selectively vulnerable to altered maturation and impaired growth in very-low-birth-weight (VLBW) infants.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether abnormal white matter maturation in VLBW infants is associated with poor neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 months of corrected age.

METHODS

Between 2015 and 2017, we recruited 60 VLBW infants at 24-32 weeks of gestational age and 15 full-term controls. All participants underwent magnetic resonance imaging at near-term age and were assessed at 18 months of corrected age with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition. The associations between regional white matter fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity on diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and developmental outcomes were explored using multivariable linear regression after correcting for gestational age, postmenstrual age at DTI scan, and maternal education level.

RESULTS

The FA values of the splenium of the corpus callosum (p = 0.032), corticospinal tract (p = 0.025), middle cerebellar peduncle (MCP) (p < 0.001), and cingulum (p = 0.043) were significantly related to cognitive scores; however, only the association corresponding to the MCP remained significant after correcting for multiple comparisons. The MCP FA (p = 0.008) was associated with motor scores after correction for multiple comparisons (p = 0.008). Cognitive impairment (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.823, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.722-0.911) and motor impairment (AUC = 0.776, 95% CI = 0.656-0.899) were predicted by MCP FA.

CONCLUSIONS

The FA of MCP at near-term age may predict developmental outcomes of VLBW infants at 18 months of corrected age.

Automated brain morphometric biomarkers from MRI at term predict motor development in very preterm infants

•

Nearly 1/3 of very preterm (VPT) infants develop motor impairments later in life.

•

Better early biomarkers are needed for risk-stratification and early intervention.

•

We used MRI morphometrics at term to predict 2-year motor ability in VPT infants.

•

Inner cortical curvature at term is a novel biomarker of early motor aptitude.

•

In regression models, morphometrics explained nearly 50% of motor score variance.

Very preterm infants are at high risk for motor impairments. Early interventions can improve outcomes in this cohort, but they would be most effective if clinicians could accurately identify the highest-risk infants early. A number of biomarkers for motor development exist, but currently none are sufficiently accurate for early risk-stratification. We prospectively enrolled very preterm (gestational age ≤31 weeks) infants from four level-III NICUs. Structural brain MRI was performed at term-equivalent age. We used a established pipeline to automatically derive brain volumetrics and cortical morphometrics – cortical surface area, sulcal depth, gyrification index, and inner cortical curvature – from structural MRI. We related these objective measures to Bayley-III motor scores (overall, gross, and fine) at two-years corrected age. Lasso regression identified the three best predictive biomarkers for each motor scale from our initial feature set. In multivariable regression, we assessed the independent value of these brain biomarkers, over-and-above known predictors of motor development, to predict motor scores. 75 very preterm infants had high-quality T2-weighted MRI and completed Bayley-III motor testing. All three motor scores were positively associated with regional cortical surface area and subcortical volumes and negatively associated with cortical curvature throughout the majority of brain regions. In multivariable regression modeling, thalamic volume, curvature of the temporal lobe, and curvature of the insula were significant predictors of overall motor development on the Bayley-III, independent of known predictors. Objective brain morphometric biomarkers at term show promise in predicting motor development in very preterm infants.

Urinary Nerve Growth Factor in full-term, preterm and intra uterine growth restriction neonates: Association with brain growth at 30-40 days of postnatal period and with neuro-development outcome at two years. A pilot study

Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) and Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) are crucial for the peripheral and central nervous system development, respectively, and differential brain and blood levels in Intra Uterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) and prematurity have been found. As reduced growth of brain regions, measured at 30-40 days of postnatal period, has been demonstrated in preterm and IUGR neonates who showed impaired neuro-development at two years of age, in this study, the levels of NGF and BDNF were evaluated in the urine samples of 30-40 day-old subjects who were full-term, preterm and IUGR and showed a normal or an abnormal neuro-development at follow up after two years. Neurotrophins were measured concurrently with volumes of whole brain, thalamus, frontal cortex and cerebellum. Values were then correlated with later neuro-developmental outcome. Biochemical parameters and cerebral volumes were assessed using colorimetric ELISA kits and three-dimensional ultra-sonography (3DUS), respectively. Neuro-development was estimated using the Griffiths-II test. Urinary NGF and brain volumes significantly correlated and were lower in preterm and IUGR subjects characterized by poor neuro-development. No differences were seen in the case of BDNF. The present investigation demonstrates, for the first time, the strong and direct association of NGF with brain growth at the initial phase of the postnatal period and with neuro-developmental outcome in later life. Remarkably, urinary NGF may be suggested as an early prognostic indicator of high long-term risk of motor and cognitive impairment in IUGR and preterm neonates.

Intranasal mesenchymal stem cell therapy to boost myelination after encephalopathy of prematurity

Encephalopathy of prematurity (EoP) is a common cause of long-term neurodevelopmental morbidity in extreme preterm infants. Diffuse white matter injury (dWMI) is currently the most commonly observed form of EoP. Impaired maturation of oligodendrocytes (OLs) is the main underlying pathophysiological mechanism. No therapies are currently available to combat dWMI. Intranasal application of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is a promising therapeutic option to boost neuroregeneration after injury. Here, we developed a double-hit dWMI mouse model and investigated the therapeutic potential of intranasal MSC therapy. Postnatal systemic inflammation and hypoxia-ischemia led to transient deficits in cortical myelination and OL maturation, functional deficits and neuroinflammation. Intranasal MSCs migrated dispersedly into the injured brain and potently improved myelination and functional outcome, dampened cerebral inflammationand rescued OL maturation after dWMI. Cocultures of MSCs with primary microglia or OLs show that MSCs secrete factors that directly promote OL maturation and dampen neuroinflammation. We show that MSCs adapt their secretome after ex vivo exposure to dWMI milieu and identified several factors including IGF1, EGF, LIF, and IL11 that potently boost OL maturation. Additionally, we showed that MSC-treated dWMI brains express different levels of these beneficial secreted factors. In conclusion, the combination of postnatal systemic inflammation and hypoxia-ischemia leads to a pattern of developmental brain abnormalities that mimics the clinical situation. Intranasal delivery of MSCs, that secrete several beneficial factors in situ, is a promising strategy to restore myelination after dWMI and subsequently improve the neurodevelopmental outcome of extreme preterm infants in the future.

Automated Measurement of Intracranial Volume Using Three-Dimensional Photography

BACKGROUND

Current methods to analyze three-dimensional photography do not quantify intracranial volume, an important metric of development. This study presents the first noninvasive, radiation-free, accurate, and reproducible method to quantify intracranial volume from three-dimensional photography.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, cranial bones and head skin were automatically segmented from computed tomographic images of 575 subjects without cranial abnormality (average age, 5 ± 5 years; range, 0 to 16 years). The intracranial volume and the head volume were measured at the cranial vault region, and their relation was modeled by polynomial regression, also accounting for age and sex. Then, the regression model was used to estimate the intracranial volume of 30 independent pediatric patients from their head volume measured using three-dimensional photography. Evaluation was performed by comparing the estimated intracranial volume with the true intracranial volume of these patients computed from paired computed tomographic images; two growth models were used to compensate for the time gap between computed tomographic and three-dimensional photography.

RESULTS

The regression model estimated the intracranial volume of the normative population from the head volume calculated from computed tomographic images with an average error of 3.81 ± 3.15 percent (p = 0.93) and a correlation (R) of 0.96. The authors obtained an average error of 4.07 ± 3.01 percent (p = 0.57) in estimating the intracranial volume of the patients from three-dimensional photography using the regression model.

CONCLUSION

Three-dimensional photography with image analysis provides measurement of intracranial volume with clinically acceptable accuracy, thus offering a noninvasive, precise, and reproducible method to evaluate normal and abnormal brain development in young children.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Diagnostic, V.

Gestational Age is Dimensionally Associated with Structural Brain Network Abnormalities Across Development

Prematurity is associated with diverse developmental abnormalities, yet few studies relate cognitive and neurostructural deficits to a dimensional measure of prematurity. Leveraging a large sample of children, adolescents, and young adults (age 8-22 years) studied as part of the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort, we examined how variation in gestational age impacted cognition and brain structure later in development. Participants included 72 preterm youth born before 37 weeks' gestation and 206 youth who were born at term (37 weeks or later). Using a previously-validated factor analysis, cognitive performance was assessed in three domains: (1) executive function and complex reasoning, (2) social cognition, and (3) episodic memory. All participants completed T1-weighted neuroimaging at 3 T to measure brain volume. Structural covariance networks were delineated using non-negative matrix factorization, an advanced multivariate analysis technique. Lower gestational age was associated with both deficits in executive function and reduced volume within 11 of 26 structural covariance networks, which included orbitofrontal, temporal, and parietal cortices as well as subcortical regions including the hippocampus. Notably, the relationship between lower gestational age and executive dysfunction was accounted for in part by structural network deficits. Together, these findings emphasize the durable impact of prematurity on cognition and brain structure, which persists across development.

Cortical Gray Matter Injury in Encephalopathy of Prematurity: Link to Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Preterm-born infants frequently suffer from an array of neurological damage, collectively termed encephalopathy of prematurity (EoP). They also have an increased risk of presenting with a neurodevelopmental disorder (e.g., autism spectrum disorder; attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) later in life. It is hypothesized that it is the gray matter injury to the cortex, in addition to white matter injury, in EoP that is responsible for the altered behavior and cognition in these individuals. However, although it is established that gray matter injury occurs in infants following preterm birth, the exact nature of these changes is not fully elucidated. Here we will review the current state of knowledge in this field, amalgamating data from both clinical and preclinical studies. This will be placed in the context of normal processes of developmental biology and the known pathophysiology of neurodevelopmental disorders. Novel diagnostic and therapeutic tactics required integration of this information so that in the future we can combine mechanism-based approaches with patient stratification to ensure the most efficacious and cost-effective clinical practice.

Neonatal Brain Microstructure and Machine-Learning-Based Prediction of Early Language Development in Children Born Very Preterm

BACKGROUND

Very-low-birth-weight preterm infants have a higher rate of language impairments compared with children born full term. Early identification of preterm infants at risk for language delay is essential to guide early intervention at the time of optimal neuroplasticity. This study examined near-term structural brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and white matter microstructure assessed on diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in relation to early language development in children born very preterm.

METHODS

A total of 102 very-low-birth-weight neonates (birthweight≤1500g, gestational age ≤32-weeks) were recruited to participate from 2010 to 2011. Near-term structural MRI was evaluated for white matter and cerebellar abnormalities. DTI fractional anisotropy, mean diffusivity, axial diffusivity, and radial diffusivity were assessed. Language development was assessed with Bayley Scales of Infant-Toddler Development-III at 18 to 22 months adjusted age. Multivariate models with leave-one-out cross-validation and exhaustive feature selection identified three brain regions most predictive of language function. Distinct logistic regression models predicted high-risk infants, defined by language scores >1 S.D. below average.

RESULTS

Of 102 children, 92 returned for neurodevelopmental testing. Composite language score mean ± S.D. was 89.0 ± 16.0; 31 of 92 children scored <85, including 15 of 92 scoring <70, suggesting moderate-to-severe delay. Children with cerebellar asymmetry had lower receptive language subscores (P = 0.016). Infants at high risk for language impairments were predicted based on regional white matter microstructure on DTI with high accuracy (sensitivity, specificity) for composite (89%, 86%), expressive (100%, 90%), and receptive language (100%, 90%).

CONCLUSIONS

Multivariate models of near-term structural MRI and white matter microstructure on DTI may assist in identification of preterm infants at risk for language impairment, guiding early intervention.

Environmental Influences on Infant Cortical Thickness and Surface Area

Cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA) vary widely between individuals and are associated with intellectual ability and risk for various psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions. Factors influencing this variability remain poorly understood, but the radial unit hypothesis, as well as the more recent supragranular cortex expansion hypothesis, suggests that prenatal and perinatal influences may be particularly important. In this report, we examine the impact of 17 major demographic and obstetric history variables on interindividual variation in CT and SA in a unique sample of 805 neonates who received MRI scans of the brain around 2 weeks of age. Birth weight, postnatal age at MRI, gestational age at birth, and sex emerged as important predictors of SA. Postnatal age at MRI, paternal education, and maternal ethnicity emerged as important predictors of CT. These findings suggest that individual variation in infant CT and SA is explained by different sets of environmental factors with neonatal SA more strongly influenced by sex and obstetric history and CT more strongly influenced by socioeconomic and ethnic disparities. Findings raise the possibility that interventions aimed at reducing disparities and improving obstetric outcomes may alter prenatal/perinatal cortical development.

Synthetic MRI of Preterm Infants at Term-Equivalent Age: Evaluation of Diagnostic Image Quality and Automated Brain Volume Segmentation

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Neonatal MR imaging brain volume measurements can be used as biomarkers for long-term neurodevelopmental outcome, but quantitative volumetric MR imaging data are not usually available during routine radiologic evaluation. In the current study, the feasibility of automated quantitative brain volumetry and image reconstruction via synthetic MR imaging in very preterm infants was investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Conventional and synthetic T1WIs and T2WIs from 111 very preterm infants were acquired at term-equivalent age. Overall image quality and artifacts of the conventional and synthetic images were rated on a 4-point scale. Legibility of anatomic structures and lesion conspicuity were assessed on a binary scale. Synthetic MR volumetry was compared with that generated via MANTiS, which is a neonatal tissue segmentation toolbox based on T2WI.

RESULTS

Image quality was good or excellent for most conventional and synthetic images. The 2 methods did not differ significantly regarding image quality or diagnostic performance for focal and cystic WM lesions. Dice similarity coefficients had excellent overlap for intracranial volume (97.3%) and brain parenchymal volume (94.3%), and moderate overlap for CSF (75.6%). Bland-Altman plots demonstrated a small systematic bias in all cases (1.7%-5.9%) CONCLUSIONS: Synthetic T1WI and T2WI sequences may complement or replace conventional images in neonatal imaging, and robust synthetic volumetric results are accessible from a clinical workstation in less than 1 minute. Via the above-described methods, volume assessments could be routinely used in daily clinical practice.

Specific cognitive deficits in preschool age correlated with qualitative and quantitative MRI parameters in prematurely born children

BACKGROUND

Cognitive deficits after perinatal brain lesion in preterm infants are among the most common neurodevelopmental disturbances. The relationship between structural changes on at term magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and cognitive deficits in the preschool age should be a special focus due to timely intervention. The aim of this study was to correlate qualitative and quantitative MRI parameters of perinatal brain lesion in preterm children, on early neonatal MRI and follow up MRI, with general and specific cognitive functions in the preschool age.

METHODS

Twenty-one preterm infants with verified perinatal lesions based on clinical and ultrasound data underwent a brain MRI at term-equivalent age and a second MRI between 3 and 5 years of age. Qualitative and quantitative MRI analyses were done. All subjects underwent cognitive assessment (3-5 years) using Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III) and Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment (NEPSY-II).

RESULTS

Results show that many structural changes on at term MRI and on follow up MRI in preterm born children moderately correlate with specific cognitive deficits in preschool age. At term equivalent MRI, white matter changes and cortical thickness correlate to general and specific cognitive functions in infants born preterm. By analyzing follow up MRI at preschool age, structural changes of different white matter segments, corpus callosum, cortical thickness and lobe volume correlate to some specific cognitive functions.

CONCLUSION

Besides general cognitive delay, specific cognitive deficits in preterm children should be targeted in research and intervention, optimally combined with MRI scanning, providing timely and early intervention of cognitive deficits after perinatal brain lesion. Our results, as well as previously published results, suggest the importance of detailed preschool neuropsychological assessment, prior to enrolment in the school system. Although preliminary, our results expand our understanding of the relationship between early brain developmental lesions and cognitive outcome following premature birth.

Brain 3D-echographic early predictors of neuro-behavioral disorders in infants: a prospective observational study

Background: Prematurity, low birth weight (LBW), very low birth weight (VLBW), and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) are risk factors of long-term poor neuro-development outcomes and associate with reduction of regional brain volumes.Objective: To evaluate the possible role of 3D ultrasound sonography (3DUS) regional brain volumes, measured at 30-40 days of postnatal period, as early predictors of long-term risk of neuro-behavioral disorders.Methods: A highly selected population, which included: full-term, preterm, IUGR, and preterm-IUGR born individuals, was followed longitudinally from 30 to 40 days of postnatal period to the second year of life. The population was mostly composed of bichorionic twins to ensure a, theoretically, major intracategory homogeneity. Preterm and IUGR subjects were characterized by a gestational age (GA) and birth weight (BW)>32 weeks and >1500 g, respectively, whereas the full-term neonates were of 37 weeks GA. At enrollment, the assessment of the volumetric measurements was performed using the 3DUS. The evaluation of neuro-development was performed at 2 years using the Griffiths Mental Development Scales.Results: The 3DUS measurements of whole brain, thalamus, frontal cortex, and cerebellum volumes, assessed at 30-40 days of postnatal period, were significantly reduced in infants characterized by negative outcome. In addition, the respective areas of the ROC curves, made by comparing values of normal and abnormal neuro-development groups, were indicative of a strong diagnostic accuracy.Conclusion: Data found suggest that the 3DUS regional brain volumes may assume a significant role as early indicators of neonates at major risk of neuro-behavioral disorders in later life. Further and larger studies in this direction are needed to validate this significant perspective.