Not your ordinary yeast: non-Saccharomycesyeasts in wine production uncovered

Saccharomyces cerevisiae metabolism in ecological context

The architecture and regulation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae metabolic network are among the best studied owing to its widespread use in both basic research and industry. Yet, several recent studies have revealed notable limitations in explaining genotype-metabolic phenotype relations in this yeast, especially when concerning multiple genetic/environmental perturbations. Apparently unexpected genotype-phenotype relations may originate in the evolutionarily shaped cellular operating principles being hidden in common laboratory conditions. Predecessors of laboratory S. cerevisiae strains, the wild and the domesticated yeasts, have been evolutionarily shaped by highly variable environments, very distinct from laboratory conditions, and most interestingly by social life within microbial communities. Here we present a brief review of the genotypic and phenotypic peculiarities of S. cerevisiae in the context of its social lifestyle beyond laboratory environments. Accounting for this ecological context and the origin of the laboratory strains in experimental design and data analysis would be essential in improving the understanding of genotype-environment-phenotype relationships.

Rapid sensory-directed methodology for the selection of high-quality aroma wines

BACKGROUND

The present work contributes by developing a rapid sensory-directed methodology for the screening and selection of high-quality wines with different sensory profiles. Verdejo and Tempranillo musts were fermented with 50 different yeasts each under controlled laboratory conditions. Resulting samples were firstly categorised according to five levels of quality by a panel of wine professionals. Higher quality samples were described by flash profiling by a semi-trained panel and most distinctive samples were screened by gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O).

RESULTS

Seven Verdejo and five Tempranillo samples were classified in the highest quality category, presenting different aroma profiles such as citrus, fruit in syrup, boxtree/vegetal, tropical or wet grain aromas for Verdejo and red fruit or fruit in syrup for Tempranillo. β-Damascenone, 3-mercaptohexyl acetate and ethyl butyrate appeared as distinctive quality compounds linked to dried, tropical and red fruit aromas, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The categorisation task followed by flash profiling and GC-O analysis was shown to be a rapid and effective sensory-directed methodology for the screening of distinctive and quality wine aroma profiles in a case study of yeast selection. The wine industry could benefit from the use of this methodology as a complementary tool for optimising different technical processes. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Development of microsatellite markers for Lachancea thermotolerans typing and population structure of wine-associated isolates

Lachancea (Kluyveromyces) thermotolerans is an important member of the grape/wine yeast community with great technological potential for the wine industry. Although several molecular marker techniques have been developed for typing different yeast species, no one has been designed so far for L. thermotolerans. Here we present a simple and efficient method based on a multilocus SSR analysis for molecular typing and genetic diversity assessment of L. thermotolerans isolates. Following whole genome screening, five polymorphic microsatellite markers were selected and tested on a panel of grape isolates from different vineyards of two geographically separated viticultural zones, Nemea and Peza, in Greece. The SSR method proved quite discriminatory as compared to tandem repeat-tRNA-PCR, a fingerprinting method for typing non-Saccharomyces yeasts. Genetic analysis based on SSR data revealed a clear structure between the populations of the two zones. Furthermore, significant differences were also detected in a number of phenotypic characters of enological interest. A positive correlation was observed between phenotypic and genotypic diversity. Taking together, present results support the microbial terroir concept in the case of L. thermotolerans in Greece, which is an important prerequisite for the exploitation of selected genotypes as fermentation starters with region-specific characters.

Synthetic genome engineering forging new frontiers for wine yeast

Over the past 15 years, the seismic shifts caused by the convergence of biomolecular, chemical, physical, mathematical, and computational sciences alongside cutting-edge developments in information technology and engineering have erupted into a new field of scientific endeavor dubbed Synthetic Biology. Recent rapid advances in high-throughput DNA sequencing and DNA synthesis techniques are enabling the design and construction of new biological parts (genes), devices (gene networks) and modules (biosynthetic pathways), and the redesign of biological systems (cells and organisms) for useful purposes. In 2014, the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae became the first eukaryotic cell to be equipped with a fully functional synthetic chromosome. This was achieved following the synthesis of the first viral (poliovirus in 2002 and bacteriophage Phi-X174 in 2003) and bacterial (Mycoplasma genitalium in 2008 and Mycoplasma mycoides in 2010) genomes, and less than two decades after revealing the full genome sequence of a laboratory (S288c in 1996) and wine (AWRI1631 in 2008) yeast strain. A large international project - the Synthetic Yeast Genome (Sc2.0) Project - is now underway to synthesize all 16 chromosomes (∼12 Mb carrying ∼6000 genes) of the sequenced S288c laboratory strain by 2018. If successful, S. cerevisiae will become the first eukaryote to cross the horizon of in silico design of complex cells through de novo synthesis, reshuffling, and editing of genomes. In the meantime, yeasts are being used as cell factories for the semi-synthetic production of high-value compounds, such as the potent antimalarial artemisinin, and food ingredients, such as resveratrol, vanillin, stevia, nootkatone, and saffron. As a continuum of previously genetically engineered industrially important yeast strains, precision genome engineering is bound to also impact the study and development of wine yeast strains supercharged with synthetic DNA. The first taste of what the future holds is the de novo production of the raspberry ketone aroma compound, 4-[4-hydroxyphenyl]butan-2-one, in a wine yeast strain (AWRI1631), which was recently achieved via metabolic pathway engineering and synthetic enzyme fusion. A peek over the horizon is revealing that the future of "Wine Yeast 2.0" is already here. Therefore, this article seeks to help prepare the wine industry - an industry rich in history and tradition on the one hand, and innovation on the other - for the inevitable intersection of the ancient art practiced by winemakers and the inventive science of pioneering "synthetic genomicists". It would be prudent to proactively engage all stakeholders - researchers, industry practitioners, policymakers, regulators, commentators, and consumers - in a meaningful dialog about the potential challenges and opportunities emanating from Synthetic Biology. To capitalize on the new vistas of synthetic yeast genomics, this paper presents wine yeast research in a fresh context, raises important questions and proposes new directions.

Biocontrol Ability and Action Mechanism of Starmerella bacillaris (Synonym Candida zemplinina) Isolated from Wine Musts against Gray Mold Disease Agent Botrytis cinerea on Grape and Their Effects on Alcoholic Fermentation

Gray mold is one of the most important diseases of grapevine in temperate climates. This plant pathogen affects plant growth and reduces wine quality. The use of yeasts as biocontrol agents to apply in the vineyard have been investigated in recent years as an alternative to agrochemicals. In this work, fermenting musts obtained from overripe grape berries, therefore more susceptible to infection by fungal pathogens such as Botrytis cinerea, were considered for the selection of yeasts carrying antifungal activity. Thirty-six isolates were identified as Starmerella bacillaris, a species recently proven to be of enological interest. Among them 14 different strains were studied and antifungal activity against B. cinerea was demonstrated, for the first time, to be present in S. bacillaris species. The production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), tested in vitro, was found to be the main responsible of S. bacillaris antifungal effects. All the strains were able to reduce B. cinerea decay on wounded grape berries artificially inoculated with gray mold. The colonization level of wound was very high reaching, after 5 days, a concentration of 10⁶ cells per ml of grape juice obtained after berry crushing. At this cell concentration S. bacillaris strains were used to ferment synthetic and natural musts. The sequential yeast inoculation, performed by adding S. cerevisiae 48 h after S. bacillaris, was needed to complete sugar consumption and determined a significant increase in glicerol content and a reduction of ethanol and acetic acid concentrations. The high wound colonization ability, found in this work, together with the propensity to colonize grape berry and the interesting enological traits possessed by the selected S. bacillaris strains allow the use of this yeast as biocontrol agent on vine and grape berries with possible positive effects on must fermentation, although the presence of S. cerevisiae is needed to complete the fermentation process. This work introduces new possibilities in wine yeast selection programs in order to identify innovative wine yeasts that are simultaneously antifungal agents in vineyards and alternative wine starters for grape must fermentation and open new perspective to a more integrated strategy for increasing wine quality.

Culture-dependent and independent techniques to monitor yeast species during cold soak carried out at different temperatures in winemaking

Transformation of grape must into wine is a process that may vary according to the consumers' requirements. Application of cold soak prior to alcoholic fermentation is a common practice in cellars in order to enhance flavor complexity and extraction of phenolic compounds. However, the effect of this step on wine yeast microbiota is not well-known. The current study simultaneously analyzed the effect of different cold soak temperatures on the microbiological population throughout the process and the use of culture-dependent and independent techniques to study this yeast ecology. The temperatures assayed were those normally applied in wineries: 2.5, 8 and 12°C. PCR-DGGE allowed detection of the most representative species such as Hanseniaspora uvarum, Starmerella bacillaris and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. As could be expected, highest diversity indices were obtained at the beginning of each process, and survival of H. uvarum or S. bacillaris depended on the temperature. Our results are in agreement with those obtained with culture independent methods, but qPCR showed higher precision and a different behavior was observed for each yeast species and at each temperature assayed. Comparison of both culture-independent techniques can provide a general overview of the whole process, although DGGE does not reveal the diversity expected due to the reported problems with the sensitivity of this technique.

Yeast Biodiversity from DOQ Priorat Uninoculated Fermentations

Climate, soil, and grape varieties are the primary characteristics of terroir and lead to the definition of various appellations of origin. However, the microbiota associated with grapes are also affected by these conditions and can leave a footprint in a wine that will be part of the characteristics of terroir. Thus, a description of the yeast microbiota within a vineyard is of interest not only to provide a better understanding of the winemaking process, but also to understand the source of microorganisms that maintain a microbial footprint in wine from the examined vineyard. In this study, two typical grape varieties, Grenache and Carignan, have been sampled from four different vineyards in the DOQ Priorat winegrowing region. Afterward, eight spontaneous alcoholic fermentations containing only grapes from one sampling point and of one variety were conducted at laboratory scale. The fermentation kinetics and yeast population dynamics within each fermentation experiment were evaluated. Yeast identification was performed by RFLP-PCR of the 5.8S-ITS region and by sequencing D1/D2 of the 26S rRNA gene of the isolates. The fermentation kinetics did not indicate clear differences between the two varieties of grapes or among vineyards. Approximately 1,400 isolates were identified, exhibiting high species richness in some fermentations. Of all the isolates studied, approximately 60% belong to the genus Hanseniaspora, 16% to Saccharomyces, and 11% to Candida. Other minor genera, such as Hansenula, Issatchenkia, Kluyveromyces, Saccharomycodes, and Zygosaccharomyces, were also found. The distribution of the identified yeast throughout the fermentation process was studied, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae was found to be present mainly at the end of the fermentation process, while Aureobasidium pullulans was isolated primarily during the first days of fermentation in three of the eight spontaneous fermentations. This work highlights the complexity and diversity of the vineyard ecosystem, which contains yeasts from different species. The description of this yeast diversity will lead to the selection of native microbiota that can be used to produce quality wines with the characteristics of the Priorat.

Quality and Composition of Airén Wines Fermented by Sequential Inoculation of Lachancea thermotolerans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This study evaluates the influence of Lachancea thermotolerans on low-acidity Airén grape must from the south of Spain. For this purpose, combined fermentations with Lachancea thermotolerans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were compared to a single fermentation by S. cerevisiae. Results of all developed analyses showed significant differences in several parameters including acidity, population growth kinetics, concentration of amino acids, volatile and non-volatile compounds, and sensorial parameters. The Airén wine quality increased mainly due to the acidification by L. thermotolerans. The acidification process caused a lactic acid increment of 3.18 g/L and a reduction of 0.22 in pH compared to the control fermentation, performed by S. cerevisiae.

Influence of Lachancea thermotolerans on cv. Emir wine fermentation

The present paper describes the behaviour of Lachancea thermotolerans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in pure, co-cultured and sequential fermentations in cv. Emir grape must. Faster fermentation rates were observed in wine made with a pure culture of S. cerevisiae and wine produced with simultaneously inoculated cultures of L. thermotolerans and S. cerevisiae. Both L. thermotolerans and S. cerevisiae gave high population numbers. The use of L. thermotolerans in mixed and sequential cultures led to an increase in final total acidity content in the wines, varying in the range 5.40-6.28 g/l (as tartaric acid), compared to pure culture S. cerevisiae, which gave the lowest level of total acidity (5 g/l). The increase was in the order of 1.18-2.06 g/l total acidity. Increase in final acidity by the use of L. thermotolerans might be useful to improve wines with low acidity due to global climate change. Volatile acidity levels (as acetic acid) were in the range 0.53-0.73 g/l, while the concentration of ethyl alcohol varied in the range 10.76-11.62% v/v. Sequential fermentations of wines and pure culture fermentation of L. thermotolerans resulted in reduction in the concentrations of acetaldehyde and higher alcohols, with exception of N-propanol and esters. According to the sensory analysis, wine obtained with sequential inoculation of L. thermotolerans followed by inoculation of S. cerevisiae after 24 h, and simultaneous inoculation of these yeasts, was the most preferred. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Microbial Terroir in Chilean Valleys: Diversity of Non-conventional Yeast

In this study, the presence of non-conventional yeast associated with vineyards located between latitudes 30°S and 36°S was examined, including the valleys of Limarí, Casablanca, Maipo, Colchagua, Maule, and Itata. The microbial fingerprinting in each valley was examined based on the specific quantification of yeast of enological interest. Grape–berries were sampled to evaluate the presence and load of non-conventional yeast with enological potential, such as Metschnikowia, Hanseniaspora, Torulaspora, Debaryomyces, Meyerozyma, and Rhodotorula. These yeasts were present in all vineyards studied but with varying loads depending on the valley sampled. No identical fingerprints were observed; however, similarities and differences could be observed among the microbial profiles of each valley. A co-variation in the loads of Metschnikowia and Hanseniaspora with latitude was observed, showing high loads in the Casablanca and Itata valleys, which was coincident with the higher relative humidity or rainfall of those areas. Non-conventional yeasts were also isolated and identified after sequencing molecular markers. Potentially good aromatic properties were also screened among the isolates, resulting in the selection of mostly Metschnikowia and Hanseniaspora isolates. Finally, our results suggest that microbial terroir might be affected by climatic conditions such as relative humidity and rainfall, especially impacting the load of non-conventional yeast. In this study, the microbial fingerprint for yeast in Chilean vineyards is reported for the first time revealing an opportunity to study the contribution of this assembly of microorganisms to the final product.

Non-conventional Yeast Species for Lowering Ethanol Content of Wines

Rising sugar content in grape must, and the concomitant increase in alcohol levels in wine, are some of the main challenges affecting the winemaking industry nowadays. Among the several alternative solutions currently under study, the use of non-conventional yeasts during fermentation holds good promise for contributing to relieve this problem. Non-Saccharomyces wine yeast species comprise a high number or species, so encompassing a wider physiological diversity than Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Indeed, the current oenological interest of these microorganisms was initially triggered by their potential positive contribution to the sensorial complexity of quality wines, through the production of aroma and other sensory-active compounds. This diversity also involves ethanol yield on sugar, one of the most invariant metabolic traits of S. cerevisiae. This review gathers recent research on non-Saccharomyces yeasts, aiming to produce wines with lower alcohol content than those from pure Saccharomyces starters. Critical aspects discussed include the selection of suitable yeast strains (considering there is a noticeable intra-species diversity for ethanol yield, as shown for other fermentation traits), identification of key environmental parameters influencing ethanol yields (including the use of controlled oxygenation conditions), and managing mixed fermentations, by either the sequential or simultaneous inoculation of S. cerevisiae and non-Saccharomyces starter cultures. The feasibility, at the industrial level, of using non-Saccharomyces yeasts for reducing alcohol levels in wine will require an improved understanding of the metabolism of these alternative yeast species, as well as of the interactions between different yeast starters during the fermentation of grape must.

Aroma Profile of Montepulciano d'Abruzzo Wine Fermented by Single and Co-culture Starters of Autochthonous Saccharomyces and Non-saccharomyces Yeasts

Montepulciano d'Abruzzo is a native grape variety of Vitis vinifera L., grown in central Italy and used for production of high quality red wines. Limited studies have been carried out to improve its enological characteristics through the use of indigenous strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The main objective of the present work was to test two indigenous strains of S. cerevisiae (SRS1, RT73), a strain of Starmerella bacillaris (STS12), one of Hanseniaspora uvarum (STS45) and a co-culture of S. cerevisiae (SRS1) and S. bacillaris (STS12), in an experimental cellar to evaluate their role in the sensory characteristic of Montepulciano d'Abruzzo wine. A S. cerevisiae commercial strain was used. Fermentations were conducted under routine Montepulciano d'Abruzzo wine production, in which the main variables were the yeast strains used for fermentation. Basic winemaking parameters, some key chemical analysis and aroma compounds were considered. S. cerevisiae strain dynamics during fermentation were determined by molecular methods. The musts inoculated with the co-culture were characterized by a faster fermentation start and a higher content of glycerol after 3 days of fermentation, as well as the musts added with strains S. bacillaris (STS12) and H. uvarum (STS45). At the end of fermentation the parameters studied were quite similar in all the wines. Total biogenic amines (BA) content of all the wines was low. Ethanolamine was the predominant BA, with a concentration ranging from 21 to 24 mg/l. Wines were characterized by esters and alcohols. In particular, 2-phenylethanol, 3-methylbut-1-yl methanoate, and ethyl ethanoate were the major aroma volatile compounds in all wines. Statistical analysis highlighted the different role played by aroma compounds in the differentiation of wines, even if it was impossible to select a single class of compounds as the most important for a specific yeast. The present study represents a further step toward the use of tailored autochthonous strains to impart the specific characteristics of a given wine which are an expression of a specific terroir.

Yeast Interactions in Inoculated Wine Fermentation

The use of selected starter culture is widely diffused in winemaking. In pure fermentation, the ability of inoculated Saccharomyces cerevisiae to suppress the wild microflora is one of the most important feature determining the starter ability to dominate the process. Since the wine is the result of the interaction of several yeast species and strains, many studies are available on the effect of mixed cultures on the final wine quality. In mixed fermentation the interactions between the different yeasts composing the starter culture can led the stability of the final product and the analytical and aromatic profile. In the present review, we will discuss the recent developments regarding yeast interactions in pure and in mixed fermentation, focusing on the influence of interactions on growth and dominance in the process.

Pichia kudriavzevii as a representative yeast of North Patagonian winemaking terroir

Terroir concept includes specific soil, topography, climate, landscape characteristics and biodiversity features. In reference to the last aspect, recent studies investigating the microbial biogeography (lately called 'microbial terroir') have revealed that different wine-growing regions maintain different microbial communities. The aim of the present work was to identify potential autochthonous fermentative yeasts isolated from native plants in North Patagonia, Schinus johnstonii, Ephedra ochreata and Lycium chilense, that could be associated to the specific vitivinicultural terroir of this region. Different Pichia kudriavzevii isolates were recovered from these plants and physiologically and genetically compared to regional wine isolates and foreign reference strains of the same species. All isolates were subjected to molecular characterization including mtDNA-RFLP, RAPD-PCR and sequence analysis. Both wine and native P. kudriavzevii isolates from Patagonia showed similar features, different from those showed by foreign strains, suggesting that this species could be part of a specific regional terroir from North Patagonia.

The Interaction between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Non-Saccharomyces Yeast during Alcoholic Fermentation Is Species and Strain Specific

The present study analyzes the lack of culturability of different non-Saccharomyces strains due to interaction with Saccharomyces cerevisiae during alcoholic fermentation. Interaction was followed in mixed fermentations with 1:1 inoculation of S. cerevisiae and ten non-Saccharomyces strains. Starmerella bacillaris, and Torulaspora delbrueckii indicated longer coexistence in mixed fermentations compared with Hanseniaspora uvarum and Metschnikowia pulcherrima. Strain differences in culturability and nutrient consumption (glucose, alanine, ammonium, arginine, or glutamine) were found within each species in mixed fermentation with S. cerevisiae. The interaction was further analyzed using cell-free supernatant from S. cerevisiae and synthetic media mimicking both single fermentations with S. cerevisiae and using mixed fermentations with the corresponding non-Saccharomyces species. Cell-free S. cerevisiae supernatants induced faster culturability loss than synthetic media corresponding to the same fermentation stage. This demonstrated that some metabolites produced by S. cerevisiae played the main role in the decreased culturability of the other non-Saccharomyces yeasts. However, changes in the concentrations of main metabolites had also an effect. Culturability differences were observed among species and strains in culture assays and thus showed distinct tolerance to S. cerevisiae metabolites and fermentation environment. Viability kit and recovery analyses on non-culturable cells verified the existence of viable but not-culturable status. These findings are discussed in the context of interaction between non-Saccharomyces and S. cerevisiae.

Selected Schizosaccharomyces pombe Strains Have Characteristics That Are Beneficial for Winemaking

At present, wine is generally produced using Saccharomyces yeast followed by Oenococus bacteria to complete malolactic fermentation. This method has some unsolved problems, such as the management of highly acidic musts and the production of potentially toxic products including biogenic amines and ethyl carbamate. Here we explore the potential of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe to solve these problems. We characterise an extensive worldwide collection of S. pombe strains according to classic biochemical parameters of oenological interest. We identify three genetically different S. pombe strains that appear suitable for winemaking. These strains compare favourably to standard Saccharomyces cerevisiae winemaking strains, in that they perform effective malic acid deacidification and significantly reduce levels of biogenic amines and ethyl carbamate precursors without the need for any secondary bacterial malolactic fermentation. These findings indicate that the use of certain S. pombe strains could be advantageous for winemaking in regions where malic acid is problematic, and these strains also show superior performance with respect to food safety.

Indigenous Georgian Wine-Associated Yeasts and Grape Cultivars to Edit the Wine Quality in a Precision Oenology Perspective

In Georgia, one of the most ancient vine-growing environment, the homemade production of wine is still very popular in every rural family and spontaneous fermentation of must, without addition of chemical preservatives, is the norm. The present work investigated the yeast biodiversity in five Georgian areas (Guria, Imereti, Kakheti, Kartli, Ratcha-Lechkhumi) sampling grapes and wines from 22 different native cultivars, in 26 vineyards and 19 family cellars. One hundred and eighty-two isolates were ascribed to 15 different species by PCR-ITS and RFLP, and partial sequencing of D1/D2 domain 26S rDNA gene. Metschnikowia pulcherrima (F’ = 0.56, I’ = 0.32), Hanseniaspora guilliermondii (F’ = 0.49, I’ = 0.27), and Cryptococcus flavescens (F’ = 0.31, I’ = 0.11) were the dominant yeasts found on grapes, whereas Saccharomyces cerevisiae showed the highest prevalence into wine samples. Seventy four isolates with fermentative potential were screened for oenological traits such as ethanol production, resistance to SO₂, and acetic acid, glycerol and H₂S production. Three yeast strains (Kluyveromyces marxianus UMY207, S. cerevisiae UMY255, Torulaspora delbrueckii UMY196) were selected and separately inoculated in vinifications experiments at a Georgian cellar. Musts were prepared from healthy grapes of local varieties, Goruli Mtsvane (white berry cultivar) and Saperavi (black berry cultivar). Physical (°Brix) and microbial analyses (plate counts) were performed to monitor the fermentative process. The isolation of indigenous S. cerevisiae yeasts beyond the inoculated strains indicated that a co-presence occurred during the vinification tests. Results from quantitative GC-FID analysis of volatile compounds revealed that the highest amount of fermentation flavors, such as 4-ethoxy-4-oxobutanoic acid (monoethyl succinate), 2-methylpropan-1-ol, ethyl 2-hydroxypropanoate, and 2-phenylethanol, were significantly more produced in fermentation conducted in Saperavi variety inoculated with K. marxianus, whereas other aromatic compounds like 3-methylbutyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate and dihydrofuran-2(3H)-one (γ- butyrolactone) showed a higher content in Goruli Mtsvane variety samples fermented by S. cerevisiae. The selected yeast strains have proved to be promising for enhancing the flavor potential in low aromatic Georgian cultivars. This work intends to be a knowledge contribution for a precision oenology toward the strategic concept of “one grape variety-one yeast”.

Comparison of Fermentation and Wines Produced by Inoculation of Hanseniaspora vineae and Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Interest in the use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in winemaking has been increasing due to their positive contributions to wine quality. The non-Saccharomyces yeast Hanseniaspora vineae is an apiculate yeast that has been associated with the production of wine with good aromatic properties. However, little is known about the fermentation dynamics of H. vineae in natural must and its interaction with autochthonous yeasts. In the present study, we performed semi industrial fermentations of Macabeo and Merlot musts inoculated with either H. vineae or S. cerevisiae. The yeast population dynamics were monitored by plate culturing, PCR-DGGE and massive sequencing techniques. The results obtained with these techniques show that H. vineae was able dominate the autochthonous microbiota in Macabeo must but not in Merlot must, which exhibited a larger, more diverse yeast population. The presence of H. vineae throughout most of the Macabeo fermentation resulted in more fruity and flowery wine, as indicated by the chemical analysis of the final wines, which demonstrated a strong presence of phenyl ethyl acetate at concentrations higher than the threshold of perception and approximately 50 times more than that produced in wines fermented with S. cerevisiae. This compound is associated with fruity, floral and honey aromas.

Sequential Fermentation with Selected Immobilized Non-Saccharomyces Yeast for Reduction of Ethanol Content in Wine

The average ethanol content of wine has increased over the last two decades. This increase was due to consumer preference, and also to climate change that resulted in increased grape maturity at harvest. In the present study, to reduce ethanol content in wine, a microbiological approach was investigated, using immobilized selected strains of non-Saccharomyces yeasts namely Starmerella bombicola, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Hanseniaspora osmophila, and Hanseniaspora uvarum to start fermentation, followed by inoculation of free Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells. The immobilization procedures, determining high reaction rates, led a feasible sequential inoculation management avoiding possible contamination under actual winemaking. Under these conditions, the immobilized cells metabolized almost 50% of the sugar in 3 days, while S. cerevisiae inoculation completed all of fermentation. The S. bombicola and M. pulcherrima initial fermentations showed the best reductions in the final ethanol content (1.6 and 1.4% v/v, respectively). Resulting wines did not have any negative fermentation products with the exception of H. uvarum sequential fermentation that showed significant amount of ethyl acetate. On the other hand, there were increases in desirable compounds such as glycerol and succinic acid for S. bombicola, geraniol for M. pulcherrima and isoamyl acetate and isoamyl alcohol for H. osmophila sequential fermentations. The overall results indicated that a promising ethanol reduction could be obtained using sequential fermentation of immobilized selected non-Saccharomyces strains. In this way, a suitable timing of second inoculation and an enhancement of analytical profile of wine were obtained.

Overwintering of Vineyard Yeasts: Survival of Interacting Yeast Communities in Grapes Mummified on Vines

The conversion of grape must into wine involves the development and succession of yeast populations differing in species composition. The initial population is formed by vineyard strains which are washed into the must from the crushed grapes and then completed with yeasts coming from the cellar environment. As the origin and natural habitat of the vineyard yeasts are not fully understood, this study addresses the possibility, that grape yeasts can be preserved in berries left behind on vines at harvest until the spring of the next year. These berries become mummified during the winter on the vines. To investigate whether yeasts can survive in these overwintering grapes, mummified berries were collected in 16 localities in the Tokaj wine region (Hungary-Slovakia) in early March. The collected berries were rehydrated to recover viable yeasts by plating samples onto agar plates. For the detection of minority species which would not be detected by direct plating, an enrichment step repressing the propagation of alcohol-sensitive yeasts was also included in the process. The morphological, physiological, and molecular analysis identified 13 basidiomycetous and 23 ascomycetous species including fermentative yeasts of wine-making relevance among the 3879 isolates. The presence of viable strains of these species demonstrates that the grapes mummified on the vine can serve as a safe reservoir of yeasts, and may contribute to the maintenance of grape-colonizing yeast populations in the vineyard over years, parallel with other vectors and habitats. All basidiomycetous species were known phylloplane yeasts. Three Hanseniaspora species and pigmented Metschnikowia strains were the most frequent ascomycetes. Other fermentative yeasts of wine-making relevance were detected only in the enrichment cultures. Saccharomyces (S. paradoxus, S. cerevisiae, and S. uvarum) were recovered from 13% of the samples. No Candida zemplinina was found. The isolates with Aureobasidium morphology turned out to belong to Aureobasidium subglaciale, Kabatiella microsticta, or Columnosphaeria fagi. The ascomyceteous isolates grew at high concentrations of sugars with Wickerhamomyces anomalus being the most tolerant species. Complex interactions including antagonism (growth inhibition, contact inhibition, competition for nutrients) and synergism (crossfeeding) among the isolates and with Botrytis cinerea shape the composition of the overwintering communities.

Selection and use of pectinolytic yeasts for improving clarification and phenolic extraction in winemaking

Pectinase enzymes have shown a considerable influence in both, sensitive and technological properties of wines. They can help to improve clarification process, releasing more color and flavor compounds entrapped in grape skin, facilitating the liberation of phenolic compounds. This work aims to find yeasts that, because of their native pectinases, can be applied on combined fermentations with Saccharomyces cerevisiae obtaining significant benefits over single-inoculated traditional fermentations. 462 yeast strains isolated from wineries were identified and tested for several enzymatic activities of recognized interest for enology industry. Considering the 7 identified species, only Aureobasidium pullulans, Metschnikowia pulcherrima and Metschnikowia fructicola showed polygalacturonase activity. Because of its interest in winemaking, due to its reported incidence in wine flavor, the impact of M. pulcherrima as a source of pectinolytic enzymes was analyzed by measuring its influence in filterability, turbidity and the increase on color, anthocyanin and polyphenol content of wines fermented in combination with S. cerevisiae. Among the strains screened, M. pulcherrima NS-EM-34 was selected, due to its polygalacturonase activity, for further characterization in both, laboratory and semi-industrial scale assays. The kinetics concerning several metabolites of enological concern were followed during the entire fermentation process at microvinification scale. Improved results were obtained in the expected parameters when M. pulcherrima NS-EM-34 was used, in comparison to wines fermented with S. cerevisiae alone and combined with other pectinolytic and non-pectinolytic yeasts (A. pullulans and Lachancea thermotolerans, respectively), even working better than commercial enzymes preparations in most parameters. Additionally, M. pulcherrima NS-EM-34 was used at a semi-industrial scale combined with three different S. cerevisiae strains, confirming its potential application for red wine improvement on the mentioned sensorial and technological properties.

Unraveling the Enzymatic Basis of Wine "Flavorome": A Phylo-Functional Study of Wine Related Yeast Species

Non-Saccharomyces yeasts are a heterogeneous microbial group involved in the early stages of wine fermentation. The high enzymatic potential of these yeasts makes them a useful tool for increasing the final organoleptic characteristics of wines in spite of their low fermentative power. Their physiology and contribution to wine quality are still poorly understood, with most current knowledge being acquired empirically and in most cases based in single species and strains. This work analyzed the metabolic potential of 770 yeast isolates from different enological origins and representing 15 different species, by studying their production of enzymes of enological interest and linking phylogenetic and enzymatic data. The isolates were screened for glycosidase enzymes related to terpene aroma release, the β-lyase activity responsible for the release of volatile thiols, and sulfite reductase. Apart from these aroma-related activities, protease, polygalacturonase and cellulase activities were also studied in the entire yeast collection, being related to the improvement of different technological and sensorial features of wines. In this context, and in terms of abundance, two different groups were established, with α-L-arabinofuranosidase, polygalacturonase and cellulase being the less abundant activities. By contrast, β-glucosidase and protease activities were widespread in the yeast collection studied. A classical phylogenetic study involving the partial sequencing of 26S rDNA was conducted in conjunction with the enzymatic profiles of the 770 yeast isolates for further typing, complementing the phylogenetic relationships established by using 26S rDNA. This has rendered it possible to foresee the contribution different yeast species make to wine quality and their potential applicability as pure inocula, establishing species-specific behavior. These consistent results allowed us to design future targeted studies on the impact different non-Saccharomyces yeast species have on wine quality, understanding intra and interspecific enzymatic odds and, therefore, aiming to predict the most suitable application for the current non-Saccharomyces strains, as well as the potential future applications of new strains. This work therefore contributes to a better understanding of the concept of wine microbiome and its potential consequences for wine quality, as well as to the knowledge of non-Saccharomyces yeasts for their use in the wine industry.

Dominance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in alcoholic fermentation processes: role of physiological fitness and microbial interactions

Winemaking, brewing and baking are some of the oldest biotechnological processes. In all of them, alcoholic fermentation is the main biotransformation and Saccharomyces cerevisiae the primary microorganism. Although a wide variety of microbial species may participate in alcoholic fermentation and contribute to the sensory properties of end-products, the yeast S. cerevisiae invariably dominates the final stages of fermentation. The ability of S. cerevisiae to outcompete other microbial species during alcoholic fermentation processes, such as winemaking, has traditionally been ascribed to its high fermentative power and capacity to withstand the harsh environmental conditions, i.e. high levels of ethanol and organic acids, low pH values, scarce oxygen availability and depletion of certain nutrients. However, in recent years, several studies have raised evidence that S. cerevisiae, beyond its remarkable fitness for alcoholic fermentation, also uses defensive strategies mediated by different mechanisms, such as cell-to-cell contact and secretion of antimicrobial peptides, to combat other microorganisms. In this paper, we review the main physiological features underlying the special aptitude of S. cerevisiae for alcoholic fermentation and discuss the role of microbial interactions in its dominance during alcoholic fermentation, as well as its relevance for winemaking.

A multivariate approach using attenuated total reflectance mid-infrared spectroscopy to measure the surface mannoproteins and β-glucans of yeast cell walls during wine fermentations

Yeast cells possess a cell wall comprising primarily glycoproteins, mannans, and glucan polymers. Several yeast phenotypes relevant for fermentation, wine processing, and wine quality are correlated with cell wall properties. To investigate the effect of wine fermentation on cell wall composition, a study was performed using mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy coupled with multivariate methods (i.e., PCA and OPLS-DA). A total of 40 yeast strains were evaluated, including Saccharomyces strains (laboratory and industrial) and non-Saccharomyces species. Cells were fermented in both synthetic MS300 and Chardonnay grape must to stationery phase, processed, and scanned in the MIR spectrum. PCA of the fingerprint spectral region showed distinct separation of Saccharomyces strains from non-Saccharomyces species; furthermore, industrial wine yeast strains separated from laboratory strains. PCA loading plots and the use of OPLS-DA to the data sets suggested that industrial strains were enriched with cell wall proteins (e.g., mannoproteins), whereas laboratory strains were composed mainly of mannan and glucan polymers.

The Potential of the Yeast Debaryomyces hansenii H525 to Degrade Biogenic Amines in Food

Twenty-six yeasts from different genera were investigated for their ability to metabolize biogenic amines. About half of the yeast strains produced one or more different biogenic amines, but some strains of Debaryomyces hansenii and Yarrowia lipolytica were also able to degrade such compounds. The most effective strain D. hanseniii H525 metabolized a broad spectrum of biogenic amines by growing and resting cells. Degradation of biogenic amines by this yeast isolate could be attributed to a peroxisomal amine oxidase activity. Strain H525 may be useful as a starter culture to reduce biogenic amines in fermented food.

Drosophila-associated yeast species in vineyard ecosystems

Yeast activity during wine fermentation directly contributes to wine quality, but the source and movement of yeasts in vineyards and winery environments have not been resolved. Here, we investigate the yeast species associated with the Drosophila insect vector to help understand yeast dispersal and persistence. Drosophila are commonly found in vineyards and are known to have a mutualistic relationship with yeasts in other ecosystems. Drosophilids were collected from vineyards, grape waste (marc) piles and wineries during grape harvest. Captured flies were identified morphologically, and their associated yeasts were identified. Drosophila melanogaster/D. simulans, D. hydei and Scaptodrosophila lativittata were identified in 296 captured Drosophila flies. These flies were associated with Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Torulaspora delbrueckii and H. valbyensis yeasts. Yeast and Drosophila species diversity differed between collection locations (vineyard and marc: R = 0.588 for Drosophila and R = 0.644 for yeasts). Surprisingly, the primary wine fermentation yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was not isolated. Drosophila flies are preferentially associated with different yeast species in the vineyard and winery environments, and this association may help the movement and dispersal of yeast species in the vineyard and winery ecosystem.

Wine fermentation microbiome: a landscape from different Portuguese wine appellations

Grapes and wine musts harbor a complex microbiome, which plays a crucial role in wine fermentation as it impacts on wine flavour and, consequently, on its final quality and value. Unveiling the microbiome and its dynamics, and understanding the ecological factors that explain such biodiversity, has been a challenge to oenology. In this work, we tackle this using a metagenomics approach to describe the natural microbial communities, both fungal and bacterial microorganisms, associated with spontaneous wine fermentations. For this, the wine microbiome, from six Portuguese wine appellations, was fully characterized as regards to three stages of fermentation - Initial Musts (IM), and Start and End of alcoholic fermentations (SF and EF, respectively). The wine fermentation process revealed a higher impact on fungal populations when compared with bacterial communities, and the fermentation evolution clearly caused a loss of the environmental microorganisms. Furthermore, significant differences (p < 0.05) were found in the fungal populations between IM, SF, and EF, and in the bacterial population between IM and SF. Fungal communities were characterized by either the presence of environmental microorganisms and phytopathogens in the IM, or yeasts associated with alcoholic fermentations in wine must samples as Saccharomyces and non-Saccharomyces yeasts (as Lachancea, Metschnikowia, Hanseniaspora, Hyphopichia, Sporothrix, Candida, and Schizosaccharomyces). Among bacterial communities, the most abundant family was Enterobacteriaceae; though families of species associated with the production of lactic acid (Lactobacillaceae, Leuconostocaceae) and acetic acid (Acetobacteriaceae) were also detected. Interestingly, a biogeographical correlation for both fungal and bacterial communities was identified between wine appellations at IM suggesting that each wine region contains specific and embedded microbial communities which may contribute to the uniqueness of regional wines.