KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the care of kidney transplant recipients

Impact of immunosuppressive therapy on arterial stiffness in kidney transplantation: are all treatments the same?

Arterial stiffness is a biologic process related to ageing and its relationship with cardiovascular risk is well established. Several methods are currently available for non-invasive measurement of arterial stiffness that provide valuable information to further assess patients’ vascular status in real time. In kidney transplantation recipients, several factors could accelerate the stiffness process, such as the use of calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs), the presence of chronic kidney disease and other classical cardiovascular factors, which would explain, at least in part, the high cardiovascular mortality and morbidity. Despite the importance of arterial stiffness as a biomarker of cardiovascular risk, and unlike other cardiovascular risk factors (e.g. left ventricular hypertrophy), only a few clinical trials or retrospective studies of kidney recipients have evaluated its impact. In this review we describe the clinical impact of arterial stiffness as a prognostic marker of cardiovascular disease and the effects of different immunosuppressive regimens on its progression, focusing on the potential benefits of CNI-sparing protocols and supporting the rationale for individualization of immunosuppression in patients with lower arterial elasticity. Among the immunosuppressive drugs, a belatacept-based regimen seems to offer better vascular protection compared with CNIs, although further studies are needed to confirm the preliminary positive results.

Tacrolimus Utilization and Expenditure in Serbia

Background

Increasing immunosuppressant consumption and expenditure is a quite a challenge in transplantation medicine. The aim of the study was to characterize the utilization and expenditure of tacrolimus, backbone, and standard of care in immunosuppression regimen in Serbian solid organ transplant recipients.

Methods

This study was performed as retrospective cross-sectional study during a 3-year period (from 2013 to 2015) in Serbia. The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification/Defined Daily Doses (ATC/DDD) international system was used for consumption evaluation.

Results

Two hundred and sixty-nine patients were transplanted in Serbia from 2013 to 2015 (185 recipients from deceased donors and 84 recipients from living donors). Total number of deceased donors in this period was 81. The consumption of tacrolimus increased (from 0.051 DDD/1,000 inhabitants/day to 0.069 DDD/1,000 inhabitants/day in 2013 and 2015, respectively). The total cost of tacrolimus was also increased; from 1,206,816€ to 1,483,472€ in 2013 and 2015, respectively. On the other hand, the number of all new solid organ transplants (from deceased and living donors) per million population per year was decreased from 17.39 to 10.02, from 2013 to 2015, respectively.

Conclusion

In spite downward trend in the number of solid organ transplants, tacrolimus consumption and expenditure in the examined 3-year period in Serbia increased. Since tacrolimus is a high-cost and life-preserving drug, its increasing utilization and expenditure will most likely continue consuming an enhancing share of Serbian pharmaceutical expenditure, as well as its health care, as a whole.

Risk Factors for Melanoma in Renal Transplant Recipients

Importance

Melanoma risk factors and incidence in renal transplant recipients can inform decision making for both patients and clinicians.

Objective

To determine risk factors and characteristics of renal transplant recipients who develop melanoma.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study of a large national data registry used a cohort of renal transplant recipients from the United States Renal Data System (USRDS) database from the years 2004 through 2012. Differences in baseline characteristics between those who did and did not develop melanoma were examined, and a survival analysis was performed. Patients with renal transplants who received a diagnosis of melanoma according to any inpatient or outpatient claim associated with a billing code for melanoma were included. A history of pretransplant melanoma, previous kidney transplantation, or transplantation after 2012 or before 2004 were exclusion criteria. The data analysis was conducted from 2015 to 2016.

Exposure

Receipt of a renal transplant.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Incidence and risk factors for melanoma.

Results

Of 105 174 patients (64 151 [60.7%] male; mean [SD] age, 49.6 [15.3] years) who received kidney transplants between 2004 and 2012, 488 (0.4%) had a record of melanoma after transplantation. Significant risk factors for developing melanoma vs not developing melanoma included older age among recipients (mean [SD] age, 60.5 [10.2] vs 49.7 [15.3] years; P < .001) and donors (42.6 [15.0] vs 39.2 [15.1] years; P < .001), male sex (71.5% vs 60.7%; P < .001), recipient (96.1% vs 66.5%; P < .001) and donor (92.4% vs 82.9%; P < .001) white race, less than 4 HLA mismatches (44.9% vs 37.1%; P = .001), living donors (44.7% vs 33.7%; P < .001), and sirolimus (22.3% vs 13.2%; P < .001) and cyclosporine (4.9% vs 3.2%; P = .04) therapy. Risk factors significant on survival analysis included older recipient age (hazard ratio [HR] per year, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.05-1.06; P < .001), recipient male sex (HR, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.25-1.88; P < .001), recipient white race, living donors (HR, 1.35; 95% CI, 1.11-1.64; P = .002), and sirolimus (HR, 1.54; 95% CI, 1.22-1.94; P < .001) and cyclosporine (HR, 1.93; 95% CI, 1.24-2.99; P = .004) therapy. The age-standardized relative rate of melanoma in USRDS patients compared with Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results patients across all years was 4.9. A Kaplan-Meier estimate of the median time to melanoma among those patients who did develop melanoma was 1.45 years (95% CI, 1.31-1.70 years).

Conclusions and Relevance

Renal transplant recipients had greater risk of developing melanoma than the general population. We believe that the risk factors we identified can guide clinicians in providing adequate care for patients in this vulnerable group.

Donor-specific antibodies and antibody-mediated rejection in vascularized composite allotransplantation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The presence of donor-specific antibodies (DSA) increases the risk of graft failure. Although DSA characteristics, human leukocyte antigen class specificity, mean fluorescence intensity and immunoglobulin G subclasses, and their impact on the graft are quite well studied in solid organ transplants, very little information is known about their impact on vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA). The aim of this review is to highlight recent publications regarding occurrence and effects of DSA, their follow-up and treatment in the field of VCA.

RECENT FINDINGS

The latest publications dealing with antibody-mediated rejection in VCA are mainly case presentations and reports embedded in reviews. The most important findings shown were the demonstration of the severe clinical impact of de-novo DSA and the urgent need of finding a therapeutic strategy for patients with acute antibody-mediated rejection. Suggested protocols for desensitization of possible candidates for reconstructive transplantation have been published, as these individuals are often highly sensitized and not appropriate patients for a standard surgical procedure because of their major tissue defects.

SUMMARY

The functional outcome of reconstructive transplantation has clearly exceeded the results achieved with conventional surgical techniques. The recipients' immune response, particularly development of DSA and the long-term adherence, which is probably associated with the occurrence of chronic rejection, remain a challenge.

Monitoring of Renal Allograft Function with Different Equations: What are the Differences?

Introduction. Monitoring of graft function by creatinine concentrations in serum and calculated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is recommended after kidney transplantation. KDIGO recommendations on the treatment of transplant patients advocate usage of one of the existing mathematical equations based on serum creatinine. We compared clinical application of three equations based on serum creatinine in monitoring the function of transplanted kidney. Methods. A total number of 55 adult patients who received their first renal allograft from living donors at our transplant center in between 2011-2014 were included into the study. Renal allograft GFR was estimated by the Cockroft-Gault, Nankivell and MDRD formula, and correlated with clinical parameters of donors and recipients. Results. The mean age of recipients was 35.7±9.5 (range 16-58), and the mean age of donors was 55.5±9.0 (34- 77) years. Out of this group of 55 transplant patients, 50(90.91%) were on hemodialysis (HD) prior to transplantation. HD treatment was shorter than 24 months in 37(74%) transplant patients. The calculated GFR with MDRD equation showed the highest mean value at 6 and 12 months (68.46±21.5; 68.39±24.6, respectively) and the lowest at 48 months (42.79±12.9). According to the Cockroft&Gault equation GFR was the highest at 12 months (88.91±24.9) and the lowest at 48 months (66.53±18.1 ml/min). The highest mean level (80.53±17.7) of the calculated GFR with the Nankivell equation was obtained at 12 months and the lowest (67.81±16.7 ml/min) at 48 months. The values of Pearson’s correlation coefficient between the calculated GFR and the MDRD at 2 years after transplantation according to donor’s age of r=-0.3224, correlation between GFR and the Cockfroft & Gault at 6 and 12 months and donor’s age (r=-0.2735 and r=-0.2818), and correlation between GFR and the Nankivell at 2 years and donor’s age of r=-0.2681, suggested a conclusion that calculated GFR was lower in recipients who had an older donors. Conclusion. Our analysis showed difference in the calculated GFR with different equations at the same time points. Using one mathematical equation during the total post-transplantation period would be a recommended method in order to eliminate the discrepancy in determining the stage of kidney failure.

Center practice drives variation in choice of US kidney transplant induction therapy: a retrospective analysis of contemporary practice

To assess factors that influence the choice of induction regimen in contemporary kidney transplantation, we examined center-identified, national transplant registry data for 166 776 US recipients (2005-2014). Bilevel hierarchical models were constructed, wherein use of each regimen was compared pairwise with use of interleukin-2 receptor blocking antibodies (IL2rAb). Overall, 82% of patients received induction, including thymoglobulin (TMG, 46%), IL2rAb (22%), alemtuzumab (ALEM, 13%), and other agents (1%). However, proportions of patients receiving induction varied widely across centers (0-100%). Recipients of living donor transplants and self-pay patients were less likely to receive induction treatment. Clinical factors associated with use of TMG or ALEM (vs. IL2rAb) included age, black race, sensitization, retransplant status, nonstandard deceased donor, and delayed graft function. However, these characteristics explained only 10-33% of observed variation. Based on intraclass correlation analysis, "center effect" explained most of the variation in TMG (58%), ALEM (66%), other (51%), and no induction (58%) use. Median odds ratios generated from case-factor adjusted models (7.66-11.19) also supported large differences in the likelihood of induction choices between centers. The wide variation in induction therapy choice across US transplant centers is not dominantly explained by differences in patient or donor characteristics; rather, it reflects center choice and practice.

Nationwide conversion to generic tacrolimus in pediatric kidney transplant recipients

BACKGROUND

Bioequivalence between Tacrolimus Prograf® and generic tacrolimus formulations has been demonstrated in adult populations, however clinical experience and safety data regarding generic tacrolimus in pediatric transplant recipients is limited. This study aimed to evaluate conversion from Tacrolimus Prograf® to Sandoz® in pediatric renal transplant recipients nationwide. The primary outcome was a change in mean trough tacrolimus concentration. Additionally, changes in tacrolimus intra-patient coefficient of variation (CoV), allograft function, requirement for dose adjustments, and episodes of biopsy-proven rejection were evaluated.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study in 37 pediatric renal transplant recipients who switched to Tacrolimus Sandoz®. Each patient had three pre-conversion tacrolimus trough and creatinine concentrations within the 4 months prior and three post-conversion concentrations on day 3, 10, and the next subsequent level. Mean pre- and post-conversion tacrolimus trough concentrations and glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) were calculated. Tacrolimus concentration, CoV, and creatinine differences were compared by paired t test.

RESULTS

Thirty-seven patients (41% females, age 3-18 years) were included. Average intra-patient difference in trough tacrolimus concentration was 0.05μg/l (95% CI -0.37 to 0.47). Average intra-patient difference in eGFR was -1.20 ml/min/1.73² (95% CI -3.53 to 1.13). Three patients had acute rejection during 12 months post-conversion compared to none during 12 months pre-conversion.

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric renal transplant recipients can be converted from Tacrolimus Prograf® to Sandoz® with negligible change in trough concentration, dose adjustments, or immediate allograft function. Of concern was the number of acute rejection episodes, however non-adherence contributed to at least one episode and this difference was determined clinically and statistically not significant.

Seasonal variations in transition, mortality and kidney transplantation among patients with end-stage renal disease in the USA

Background

Seasonal variations may exist in transitioning to dialysis, kidney transplantation and related outcomes among end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. Elucidating these variations may have major clinical and healthcare policy implications for better resource allocation across seasons.

Methods

Using the United States Renal Data System database from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2013, we calculated monthly counts of transitioning to dialysis or first transplantation and deaths. Crude monthly transition fraction was defined as the number of new ESRD patients divided by all ESRD patients on the first day of each month. Similar fractions were calculated for all-cause and cause-specific mortality and transplantation.

Results

The increasing trend of the annual transition to ESRD plateaued during 2009-2012 (n = 126 264), and dropped drastically in 2013 (n = 117 372). Independent of secular trends, monthly transition to ESRD was lowest in July (1.65%) and highest in January (1.97%) of each year. All-cause, cardiovascular and infectious mortalities were lowest in July or August (1.32, 0.58 and 0.15%, respectively) and highest in January (1.56, 0.71 and 0.19%, respectively). Kidney transplantation was highest in June (0.33%), and this peak was mainly attributed to living kidney transplantation in summer months. Transplant failure showed a similar seasonal variation to naïve transition, peaking in January (0.65%) and nadiring in September (0.56%).

Conclusions

Transitioning to ESRD and adverse events among ESRD people were more frequent in winter and less frequent in summer, whereas kidney transplantation showed the reverse trend. The potential causes and implications of these consistent seasonal variations warrant more investigation.

Co-administration of cyclosporine and ticagrelor may lead to a higher exposure to cyclosporine: a case report of a 49-year-old man

ADVERSE EVENT

A drug interaction leading to higher exposure to cyclosporine.

DRUGS IMPLICATED

Cyclosporine and ticagrelor.

THE PATIENT

A 49-year-old man with a stable renal graft, managed with cyclosporine with stable trough blood concentrations for several years, was treated with ticagrelor for unstable angina pectoris.

EVIDENCE THAT LINKS THE DRUG TO THE EVENT

The timeline was consistent with the appearance of an interaction, the interaction was confirmed by an increase in trough concentration of cyclosporine, and there were no alternative causes that by themselves could have caused the increase in cyclosporine exposure.

MANAGEMENT

Cessation of ticagrelor.

MECHANISM

Inhibition of CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein by ticagrelor.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THERAPY

Clinicians should be aware of this potential interaction as ticagrelor is frequently prescribed in individuals using cyclosporine. Close monitoring of cyclosporine serum concentrations is warranted to avoid overdosing of cyclosporine. A pharmacokinetic study is needed to further examine the probable interaction between cyclosporine and ticagrelor.

Hepatitis B in Solid-Organ Transplant Procedures Other Than Liver

Transplant is often the best treatment available for patients with end-stage organ failure. Hepatitis B virus infection in transplant procedures other than liver is a major concern because it can be a significant cause of morbidity and mortality after transplant. Due to the increased risk of hepatic complications, such as fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis or histologic deterioration after transplant, systematic use of nucleoside or nucleotide analogues shortly before or at the time of transplant is recommended (tenofovir or entecavir are preferable to lamivudine) in all patients, whatever the baseline histologic evaluation. Sustained viral suppression may result in regression of fibrosis, which in turn may lead to decreased disease-related morbidity and improved survival. Finally, due to the high mortality after nonliver transplant procedures, decompensated cirrhosis from chronic hepatitis B should be considered as a contraindication to nonliver transplant but an indication to combined organ transplant (ie, liver-kidney transplant). Because of the high prevalence of hepatitis B virus exposure in allograft donors and recipients, hepatitis B virus status must be considered during organ allocation. Prevention of hepatitis B virus-related complications in transplant recipients starts with vaccination and donor-recipient matching.

Treatment of HCV in renal transplant patients with peginterferon and ribavirin: long-term follow-up

BACKGROUND

In addition to the observation of an increased viremia among patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection who undergo renal transplantation, fibrosis and necroinflammatory activity have been noted to worsen comparing pre- and post-renal transplantation liver biopsies in some of these patients. Apart from the reported reduced patient and allograft survival rates, post-transplant diabetes mellitus, de novo glomerulonephritis, and an increased overall risk of infection have been observed. However, antiviral therapy for HCV is generally considered contraindicated among patients with solid organ transplants, with the main worry being the risk of acute rejection in relation to the use of interferon. We reported the long-term outcome of four renal transplant patients with chronic HCV infection who received peginterferon-based therapy.

METHODS

We collected the long-term follow-up data of four patients who completed the therapy with peginterferon in combination with ribavirin. Two of them had renal impairment at baseline.

RESULTS

With treatment, they had a significant improvement in terms of serum liver transaminase level, and two patients achieved the early virological response and the other two rapid virological response. All four patients achieved sustained virological response, with neither HCV flare up nor renal dysfunction during follow-up for a mean duration of 74.3 months after therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that sustained HCV virological response may be achieved without allograft dysfunction, in selected renal transplant patients using a peginterferon-based therapy.

Complement C5-inhibiting therapy for the thrombotic microangiopathies: accumulating evidence, but not a panacea

Thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA), characterized by organ injury occurring consequent to severe endothelial damage, can manifest in a diverse range of diseases. In complement-mediated atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome (aHUS) a primary defect in complement, such as a mutation or autoantibody leading to over activation of the alternative pathway, predisposes to the development of disease, usually following exposure to an environmental trigger. The elucidation of the pathogenesis of aHUS resulted in the successful introduction of the complement inhibitor eculizumab into clinical practice. In other TMAs, although complement activation may be seen, its role in the pathogenesis remains to be confirmed by an interventional trial. Although many case reports in TMAs other than complement-mediated aHUS hint at efficacy, publication bias, concurrent therapies and in some cases the self-limiting nature of disease make broader interpretation difficult. In this article, we will review the evidence for the role of complement inhibition in complement-mediated aHUS and other TMAs.

Transitional cell carcinoma involving graft kidney in a kidney transplant recipient: a case report

Background

Kidney transplantation (KT) is the treatment option for patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD) to prolong survival and improve quality of life. Although the use of potent immunosuppressive agents increases graft survival in kidney transplantation recipients (KTRs), it may lead to the development of malignancy, including transitional cell carcinoma (TCC). TCC developing in the pelvis of graft kidney is very rare in KTRs.

Case Presentation

A 40-year-old male visited hospital with complaints of nausea, vomiting and gross hematuria. Eleven years ago, he was diagnosed ESRD of unknown origin, and received a living related KT from his father 1 year later. Radiologic findings showed a huge polypoid mass in the pelvis of graft kidney with pelvo-calyceal dilation and a 3.3 cm-sized nodule in aortocaval chain and a 2.5 cm-sized nodule in right iliac chain as TCC stage IV. Sonography-guided percutaneous needle biopsy of pelvis mass in the graft kidney revealed a low grade urothelial cell carcinoma. Radical graft nephroureterectomy was performed and histopathological diagnosis confirmed as a low grade urothelial carcinoma of graft pelvis and ureter lumen, which invaded to perirenal fat and renal parenchyma with lymphovascular presence (T3Nx). The patient started with adjuvant concurrent chemo-radiation therapy and returned to regular hemodialysis.

Conclusions

We report a rare case of TCC in the pelvis of graft kidney with already advanced disease at diagnosis in a young KTR. For the early diagnosis of TCC in KTRs, exposure history to Chinese herb or analgesics should be investigated before KT and high risk population in KTRs should be tightly performed regular postoperative surveillance for TCC and considered of less calcineurin inhibitor-based immunosuppressant protocol.

Successful Dual Kidney Transplantation After Hypothermic Oxygenated Perfusion of Discarded Human Kidneys

BACKGROUND The recovery of discarded human kidneys has increased in recent years and impels to use of unconventional organ preservation strategies that improve graft function. We report the first case of human kidneys histologically discarded and transplanted after hypothermic oxygenated perfusion (HOPE). CASE REPORT Marginal kidneys from a 78-year-old woman with brain death were declined by Italian transplant centers due to biopsy score (right kidney: 6; left kidney: 7). We recovered and preserved both kidneys through HOPE and we revaluated their use for transplantation by means of perfusion parameters. The right kidney was perfused for 1 h 20 min and the left kidney for 2 h 30 min. During organ perfusion, the renal flow increased progressively. We observed an increase of 34% for the left kidney (median flow 52 ml/min) and 50% for the right kidney (median flow 24 ml/min). Both kidneys had low perfusate's lactate levels. We used perfusion parameters as important determinants of the organ discard. Based on our previous organ perfusion experience, the increase of renal flow and the low level of lactate following 1 h of HOPE lead us to declare both kidneys as appropriate for dual kidney transplantation (DKT). No complications were reported during the transplant and in the post-transplant hospital stay. The recipient had immediate graft function and serum creatinine value of 0.95 mg/dL at 3 months post-transplant. CONCLUSIONS HOPE provides added information in the organ selection process and may improve graft quality of marginal kidneys.

Aortic Dissection and Severe Renal Failure 6 Years After Kidney Transplantation

We report the case of a patient with long-term history of hypertension, presenting with transient neurological disorders and severe graft failure several years after kidney transplantation. Cause of end-stage renal disease was hypertensive nephrosclerosis. Chronic hemodialysis lasted for 1 year. After transplantation and throughout follow-up, serum creatinine ranged from 200 to 230 μmol/L and maintenance immunosuppression included sirolimus and low-dose steroids. Six years after transplantation, the patient presented with right hip pain radiating to the lower back, transient aphasia, confusion, and hemiparesis. Surprisingly, progressive anuria was established requiring dialysis. After numerous nonconclusive investigations including renal histology, a contrast computed tomography scan discovered a Stanford B aortic dissection from the left common carotid artery and left subclavian artery to bilateral internal and external iliac arteries, including the right femoral artery. No surgical treatment was opted and hemodialysis, tight control of blood pressure and oral anticoagulation were established. Immunosuppression was lightened to low-dose steroids alone. After 8 months, chronic dialysis was stopped, and today, 22 months after the diagnosis of aortic dissection, the patient is doing well with a still functioning graft (creatinine, 377 μmol/L; modification of diet in renal disease-glomerular filtration rate, 15 mL/min), and without any other immunosuppression than low-dose steroids.

Incidence of Posttransplantation Diabetes Mellitus in De Novo Kidney Transplant Recipients Receiving Prolonged-Release Tacrolimus-Based Immunosuppression With 2 Different Corticosteroid Minimization Strategies: ADVANCE, A Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

ADVANCE (NCT01304836) was a phase 4, multicenter, prospectively randomized, open-label, 24-week study comparing the incidence of posttransplantation diabetes mellitus (PTDM) with 2 prolonged-release tacrolimus corticosteroid minimization regimens.

Methods

All patients received prolonged-release tacrolimus, basiliximab, mycophenolate mofetil and 1 bolus of intraoperative corticosteroids (0-1000 mg) as per center policy. Patients in arm 1 received tapered corticosteroids, stopped after day 10, whereas patients in arm 2 received no steroids after the intraoperative bolus. The primary efficacy variable was the diagnosis of PTDM as per American Diabetes Association criteria (2010) at any point up to 24 weeks postkidney transplantation. Secondary efficacy variables included incidence of composite efficacy failure (graft loss, biopsy-proven acute rejection or severe graft dysfunction: estimated glomerular filtration rate (Modification of Diet in Renal Disease-4) <30 mL/min per 1.73 m²), acute rejection and graft and patient survival.

Results

The full-analysis set included 1081 patients (arm 1: n = 528, arm 2: n = 553). Baseline characteristics and mean tacrolimus trough levels were comparable between arms. Week 24 Kaplan–Meier estimates of PTDM were similar for arm 1 versus arm 2 (17.4% vs 16.6%; P = 0.579). Incidence of composite efficacy failure, graft and patient survival, and mean estimated glomerular filtration rate were also comparable between arms. Biopsy-proven acute rejection and acute rejection were significantly higher in arm 2 versus arm 1 (13.6% vs 8.7%, P = 0.006 and 25.9% vs 18.2%, P = 0.001, respectively). Tolerability profiles were comparable between arms.

Conclusions

A prolonged-release tacrolimus, basiliximab, and mycophenolate mofetil immunosuppressive regimen is efficacious, with a low incidence of PTDM and a manageable tolerability profile over 24 weeks of treatment. A lower incidence of biopsy-proven acute rejection was seen in patients receiving corticosteroids tapered over 10 days plus an intraoperative corticosteroid bolus versus those receiving an intraoperative bolus only.

This large, multicenter, prospective and randomized study shows no difference in the incidence of posttransplantation diabetes mellitus but higher incidence of acute rejection with a steroid avoidance versus a steroid sparing regimen in kidney transplant recipients receiving basiliximab, prolonged-release tacrolimus and mycophenolate.

Hepatitis B in renal transplant patients

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) poses a significant challenge for both dialysis patients and kidney transplant recipients despite its decreasing rates, especially in developed countries. The best preventive method is vaccination. Patients with chronic renal disease should ideally be vaccinated prior to dialysis, otherwise, reinforced vaccination practices and close antibody titer monitoring should be applied while on dialysis. HBV infected dialysis patients who are renal transplant candidates must be thoroughly examined by HBV-DNA, and liver enzyme testing and by liver biopsy. When needed, one must consider treating patients with tenofovir or entecavir rather than lamivudine. Depending on the cirrhosis stage, dialysis patients are eligible transplant recipients for either a combined kidney-liver procedure in the case of decompensated cirrhosis or a lone kidney transplantation since even compensated cirrhosis after sustained viral responders is no longer considered an absolute contraindication. Nucleoside analogues have led to improved transplantation outcomes with both long-term patient and graft survival rates nearing those of HBsAg(-) recipients. Moreover, in the cases of immunized HBsAg(-) potential recipients with concurrent prophylaxis, we are enabled today to safely use renal grafts from both HBsAg(+) and HBsAg(-)/anti-HBc(+) donors. In so doing, we avoid unnecessary organ discarding. Universal prophylaxis with entecavir is recommended in HBV kidney recipients and should start perioperatively. One of the most important issues in HBV(+) kidney transplantation is the duration of antiviral prophylaxis. In the absence of robust data, it seems that prophylactic treatment may be discontinued in selected stable, low-risk recipients during maintenance immunosuppression and should be reintroduced when the immune status is altered. All immunosuppressive agents in kidney transplantation can be used in HBV(+) recipients. Immunosuppression is intimately associated with increased viral replication; thus it is important to minimize the total immunosuppression burden long term.

Cost-Effectiveness of Antibody-Based Induction Therapy in Deceased Donor Kidney Transplantation in the United States

BACKGROUND

Induction therapy in deceased donor kidney transplantation is costly, with wide discrepancy in utilization and a limited evidence base, particularly regarding cost-effectiveness.

METHODS

We linked the United States Renal Data System data set to Medicare claims to estimate cumulative costs, graft survival, and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER - cost per additional year of graft survival) within 3 years of transplantation in 19 450 deceased donor kidney transplantation recipients with Medicare as primary payer from 2000 to 2008. We divided the study cohort into high-risk (age > 60 years, panel-reactive antibody > 20%, African American race, Kidney Donor Profile Index > 50%, cold ischemia time > 24 hours) and low-risk (not having any risk factors, comprising approximately 15% of the cohort). After the elimination of dominated options, we estimated expected ICER among induction categories: no-induction, alemtuzumab, rabbit antithymocyte globulin (r-ATG), and interleukin-2 receptor-antagonist.

RESULTS

No-induction was the least effective and most costly option in both risk groups. Depletional antibodies (r-ATG and alemtuzumab) were more cost-effective across all willingness-to-pay thresholds in the low-risk group. For the high-risk group and its subcategories, the ICER was very sensitive to the graft survival; overall both depletional antibodies were more cost-effective, mainly for higher willingness to pay threshold (US $100 000 and US $150 000). Rabbit ATG appears to achieve excellent cost-effectiveness acceptability curves (80% of the recipients) in both risk groups at US $50 000 threshold (except age > 60 years). In addition, only r-ATG was associated with graft survival benefit over no-induction category (hazard ratio, 0.91; 95% confidence interval, 0.84-0.99) in a multivariable Cox regression analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Antibody-based induction appears to offer substantial advantages in both cost and outcome compared with no-induction. Overall, depletional induction (preferably r-ATG) appears to offer the greatest benefits.

Impact of immunosuppressant therapy on new-onset diabetes in liver transplant recipients

This nationwide, population-based study aimed to clarify the effects of immunosuppressive regimens on new-onset diabetes after liver transplantation (NODALT). The National Health Insurance database of Taiwan was explored for patients who received liver transplantation without pre-transplant diabetes from 1998 to 2012. Information regarding clinical conditions and immunosuppressant utilization among these patients was analyzed statistically. Of the 2,140 patients included in our study, 189 (8.8%) developed NODALT. The pre-transplant risk factors for NODALT were identified as old age, male sex, hepatitis C, alcoholic hepatitis, and immunosuppressant use of tacrolimus (TAC). All patients used corticosteroids as a baseline immunosuppressant. The immunosuppressant regimen of cyclosporine (CsA)+TAC+mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) contributed most to NODALT (adjusted hazard ratio 7.596) in comparison with the regimens of TAC+MMF and CsA+MMF; this regimen also contributed significantly to higher post-transplant bacteremia, urinary tract infection, pneumonia, renal failure, and mortality rate. In conclusion, our analysis confirmed TAC-based immunosuppression contributes to higher NODALT incidence than CsA-based regimen, and TAC-CsA conversion due to any causes might lead to worse clinical outcomes. Clinicians should make better risk stratifications before prescribing immunosuppressants for liver transplant recipients.

CMV and BKPyV Infections in Renal Transplant Recipients Receiving an mTOR Inhibitor-Based Regimen Versus a CNI-Based Regimen: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized, Controlled Trials

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The objective of this meta-analysis is to compare the incidences of cytomegalovirus and BK polyoma virus infections in renal transplant recipients receiving a mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor (mTOR)-based regimen compared with a calcineurin inhibitor-based regimen.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

We conducted a comprehensive search for randomized, controlled trials up to January of 2016 addressing our objective. Other outcomes included acute rejection, graft loss, serious adverse events, proteinuria, wound-healing complications, and eGFR. Two review authors selected eligible studies, abstracted data, and assessed risk of bias. We assessed quality of evidence using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation methodology.

RESULTS

We included 28 randomized, controlled trials with 6211 participants classified into comparison 1: mTOR inhibitor versus calcineurin inhibitor and comparison 2: mTOR inhibitor plus reduced dose of calcineurin inhibitor versus regular dose of calcineurin inhibitor. Results showed decreased incidence of cytomegalovirus infection in mTOR inhibitor-based group in both comparison 1 (risk ratio, 0.54; 95% confidence interval, 0.41 to 0.72), with high quality of evidence, and comparison 2 (risk ratio, 0.43; 95% confidence interval, 0.24 to 0.80), with moderate quality of evidence. The available evidence neither confirmed nor ruled out a reduction of BK polyoma virus infection in mTOR inhibitor-based group in both comparisons. Secondary outcomes revealed more serious adverse events and acute rejections in mTOR inhibitor-based group in comparison 1 and no difference in comparison 2. There was no difference in graft loss in both comparisons. eGFR was higher in the mTOR inhibitor-based group in comparison 1 (mean difference =4.07 ml/min per 1.73 m2; 95% confidence interval, 1.34 to 6.80) and similar to the calcineurin inhibitor-based group in comparison 2. More proteinuria and wound-healing complications occurred in the mTOR inhibitor-based groups.

CONCLUSIONS

We found moderate- to high-quality evidence of reduced risk of cytomegalovirus infection in renal transplant recipients in the mTOR inhibitor-based compared with the calcineurin inhibitor-based regimen. Our review also suggested that a combination of a mTOR inhibitor and a reduced dose of calcineurin inhibitor may be associated with similar eGFR and rates of acute rejections and serious adverse events compared with a standard calcineurin inhibitor-based regimen at the expense of higher incidence of proteinuria and wound-healing complications.

Prevalence and Causes of Proteinuria in Kidney Transplant Recipients: Data from a Single Center

Introduction. Proteinuria after renal transplantation increases the risk of graft failure and mortality. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence and causes of proteinuria in kidney transplant recipients. Methods. All kidney transplant recipients followed up in our clinic were included in the study. As a center protocol 24-hour urine collections were used to quantify protein excretion with 3-month intervals posttransplantation during the first year, and yearly thereafter. The etiology of chronic kidney disease and demographic characteristics of the study group were obtained from outpatient records. Data regarding the immunosuppressive regimens used, 24-hour proteinuria levels and creatinine clearences, new-onset hypertension, new-onset diabetes mellitus, rejection episodes, infections like cytomegalovirus (CMV) and polyoma (BK), and biopsy findings were noted. Results. A total of 260 kidney transplant recipients (97 females, mean age 42.3±12.3 years) were evaluated. Median follow-up period was 36 months; 137 of all transplantations were from living donors. Mean age of donors was 42.7±15 years and 133 were female. Proteinuria with protein excretion ≥300 mg/d was present in 35.4% of patients. The most common cause of biopsy-proven proteinuria was transplant-specific conditions (acute rejection, and borderline changes). Conclusion. The prevalence of proteinuria was 35.4%. The transplant-specific diagnoses were the most likely causes. Even in nonnephrotic ranges it was associated with decreased graft survival.

Class II Eplet Mismatch Modulates Tacrolimus Trough Levels Required to Prevent Donor-Specific Antibody Development

Despite more than two decades of use, the optimal maintenance dose of tacrolimus for kidney transplant recipients is unknown. We hypothesized that HLA class II de novo donor-specific antibody (dnDSA) development correlates with tacrolimus trough levels and the recipient's individualized alloimmune risk determined by HLA-DR/DQ epitope mismatch. A cohort of 596 renal transplant recipients with 50,011 serial tacrolimus trough levels had HLA-DR/DQ eplet mismatch determined using HLAMatchmaker software. We analyzed the frequency of tacrolimus trough levels below a series of thresholds <6 ng/ml and the mean tacrolimus levels before dnDSA development in the context of HLA-DR/DQ eplet mismatch. HLA-DR/DQ eplet mismatch was a significant multivariate predictor of dnDSA development. Recipients treated with a cyclosporin regimen had a 2.7-fold higher incidence of dnDSA development than recipients on a tacrolimus regimen. Recipients treated with tacrolimus who developed HLA-DR/DQ dnDSA had a higher proportion of tacrolimus trough levels <5 ng/ml, which continued to be significant after adjustment for HLA-DR/DQ eplet mismatch. Mean tacrolimus trough levels in the 6 months before dnDSA development were significantly lower than the levels >6 months before dnDSA development in the same patients. Recipients with a high-risk HLA eplet mismatch score were less likely to tolerate low tacrolimus levels without developing dnDSA. We conclude that HLA-DR/DQ eplet mismatch and tacrolimus trough levels are independent predictors of dnDSA development. Recipients with high HLA alloimmune risk should not target tacrolimus levels <5 ng/ml unless essential, and monitoring for dnDSA may be advisable in this setting.

Interferon-Gamma DNA Methylation Is Affected by Mycophenolic Acid but Not by Tacrolimus after T-Cell Activation

Immunosuppressive drug therapy is required to treat patients with autoimmune disease and patients who have undergone organ transplantation. The main targets of the immunosuppressive drugs tacrolimus and mycophenolic acid (MPA; the active metabolite of mycophenolate mofetil) are T cells. It is currently unknown whether these immunosuppressive drugs have an effect on DNA methylation—an epigenetic regulator of cellular function. Here, we determined the effect of tacrolimus and MPA on DNA methylation of the gene promoter region of interferon gamma (IFNγ), a pro-inflammatory cytokine. Total T cells, naive T cells (CCR7⁺CD45RO⁻), and memory T cells (CD45RO⁺ and CCR7⁻CD45RO⁻) were isolated from CMV seropositive healthy controls and stimulated with α-CD3/CD28 in the presence or absence of tacrolimus or MPA. DNA methylation of the IFNγ promoter region was quantified by pyrosequencing at 4 h, days 1, 3, and 4 after stimulation. In parallel, T-cell differentiation, and IFNγ protein production were analyzed by flow cytometry at days 1 and 3 after stimulation. Our results show that MPA induced changes in IFNγ DNA methylation of naive T cells; MPA counteracted the decrease in methylation after stimulation. Tacrolimus did not affect IFNγ DNA methylation of naive T cells. In the memory T cells, both immunosuppressive drugs did not affect IFNγ DNA methylation. Differentiation of naive T cells into a central-memory-like phenotype (CD45RO⁺) was inhibited by both immunosuppressive drugs, while differentiation of memory T cells remained unaffected by both MPA and tacrolimus. IFNγ protein production was suppressed by tacrolimus. Our results demonstrate that MPA influenced IFNγ DNA methylation of naive T cells after stimulation of T cells, while tacrolimus had no effect. Both tacrolimus and MPA did not affect IFNγ DNA methylation of memory T cells.

High Intrapatient Variability of Tacrolimus Levels and Outpatient Clinic Nonattendance Are Associated With Inferior Outcomes in Renal Transplant Patients

Supplemental digital content is available in the text.

Background

Nonadherence to immunosuppressants is associated with rejection and allograft loss. Intrapatient variability (IPV) of immunosuppression levels is a marker of nonadherence. This study describes the impact of IPV of tacrolimus levels in patients receiving a tacrolimus monotherapy immunosuppression protocol.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed the outpatient tacrolimus levels of kidney-only transplant patients taken between 6 and 12 months posttransplant. IPV was determined using the coefficient of variance.

Results

Six hundred twenty-eight patients with a mean number of 8.98 ± 3.81 tacrolimus levels and a mean follow-up of 4.72 ± 2.19 years were included. Multivariate analysis showed death was associated with increasing age (1.04 [1.01-1.07], P = 0.0055), diabetes at time of transplant (2.79 [1.44-5.41], P = 0.0024), and rejection (2.34 [1.06-5.19], P = 0.036). Variables associated with graft loss included the highest variability group (2.51 [1.01-6.27], P = 0.048), mean tacrolimus level less than 5 ng/mL (4.32 [1.94-9.63], P = 0.0003), a high clinic nonattendance rate (1.10 [1.01-1.20], P = 0.03), and rejection (9.83 [4.62-20.94], P < 0.0001). Independent risk factors for rejection were de novo donor-specific antibody (3.15 [1.84-5.39], P < 0.0001), mean tacrolimus level less than 5 ng/mL (2.57 [1.27-5.19], P = 0.00860, and a high clinic nonattendance rate (1.11 [1.05-1.18], P = 0.0005).

Conclusions

This study shows that high tacrolimus IPV and clinic nonattendance are associated with inferior allograft survival. Interventions to minimize the causes of high variability, particularly nonadherence are essential to improve long-term allograft outcomes.

The UK National Registry of ABO and HLA Antibody Incompatible Renal Transplantation: Pretransplant Factors Associated With Outcome in 879 Transplants

BACKGROUND

ABO and HLA antibody incompatible (HLAi) renal transplants (AIT) now comprise around 10% of living donor kidney transplants. However, the relationship between pretransplant factors and medium-term outcomes are not fully understood, especially in relation to factors that may vary between centers.

METHODS

The comprehensive national registry of AIT in the United Kingdom was investigated to describe the donor, recipient and transplant characteristics of AIT. Kaplan-Meier analysis was used to compare survival of AIT to all other compatible kidney transplants performed in the United Kingdom. Cox proportional hazards regression modeling was used to determine which pretransplant factors were associated with transplant survival in HLAi and ABOi separately. The primary outcome was transplant survival, taking account of death and graft failure.

RESULTS

For 522 HLAi and 357 ABO incompatible (ABOi) transplants, 5-year transplant survival rates were 71% (95% confidence interval [CI], 66-75%) for HLAi and 83% (95% CI, 78-87%) for ABOi, compared with 88% (95% CI, 87-89%) for 7290 standard living donor transplants, and 78% (95% CI, 77-79%) for 15 322 standard deceased donor transplants (P < 0.0001). Increased chance of transplant loss in HLAi was associated with increasing number of donor specific HLA antibodies, center performing the transplant, antibody level at the time of transplant, and an interaction between donor age and dialysis status. In ABOi, transplant loss was associated with no use of IVIg, cytomegalovirus seronegative recipient, 000 HLA donor-recipient mismatch; and increasing recipient age.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of AIT were acceptable, certainly in the context of a choice between living donor AIT and an antibody compatible deceased donor transplant. Several factors were associated with increased chance of transplant loss, and these can lead to testable hypotheses for further improving therapy.

Alemtuzumab versus antithymocyte globulin induction therapies in kidney transplantation patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Alemtuzumab (ALEM) is widely used as an induction therapy for organ transplantation, and numerous randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have been published to evaluate its efficacy and safety in kidney transplantation as compared with antithymocyte globulin (ATG). The purpose of this study was to compare the benefits and safety of ALEM with those of ATG for induction therapy.A systematic literature search in three electronic databases, including PubMed, EmBase, and Cochrane Library, since inception through October 2016, was conducted to identify potential RCTs for inclusion. Trials that investigated the risk of biopsy-proven acute rejection (BPAR), mortality, graft failure, delayed graft function (DGF), chronic allograft nephropathy (CAN), infections, cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections, new-onset diabetes mellitus after transplant (NODAT), and granulocyte colony stimulation factor (GCSF) use in kidney transplant recipients who received ALEM or ATG as an induction therapy were included. Relative risk (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using a random-effects model.Six RCTs involving 446 kidney transplantation patients were included in this meta-analysis. The effects of ALEM therapy were not significantly different from those of ATG therapy, including the incidence of BPAR (RR: 0.77; 95% CI: 0.51-1.18; P = .229), mortality (RR: 0.64; 95% CI: 0.30-1.39; P = .263), graft failure (RR: 0.81; 95% CI: 0.49-1.33; P = .411), DGF (RR: 1.00; 95% CI: 0.60-1.67; P = .999), CAN (RR: 1.42; 95% CI: 0.44-4.57; P = .556), infections (RR: 1.00; 95% CI: 0.74-1.35; P = .989), CMV infections (RR: 0.70; 95% CI: 0.38-1.30; P = .263), NODAT (RR: 0.50; 95% CI: 0.18-1.36; P = .174), and GCSF use (RR: 1.16; 95% CI: 0.81-1.66; P = .413). Sensitivity analyses were consistent with the overall analysis for all effects except CAN, suggesting that the risk of CAN might be higher with ALEM therapy than ATG therapy (RR: 2.45; 95% CI: 1.02-5.94; P = .046).The findings of this study suggest that the beneficial effects of ALEM therapy are greater than those of ATG therapy in kidney transplantation patients; however, the effects were not statistically significant because of the limited number of trials. Further large-scale RCTs are needed to verify the treatment effects of ALEM.

Clinical Utility of Epstein-Barr Virus Viral Load Monitoring and Risk Factors for Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disorders After Kidney Transplantation: A Single-Center, 10-Year Observational Cohort Study

Background

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in solid organ transplants. Epstein Barr virus (EBV) plays a major role in PTLD development. Guidelines recommend EBV viral load (VL) monitoring in high-risk populations in the first year.

Methods

Retrospective observational study in all adult patients who had at least 1 EBV-VL performed in the postkidney transplant (KT) period from January 2005 to December 2014 at the Policlinico Modena Hospital. We compared patients with negative EBV-DNA to patients with positive EBV-DNA and we described PTLD developed in the study period.

Results

One hundred ninety (36.3%) KT patients of 523 were screened for EBV-DNA with 796 samples. One hundred twenty-eight (67.4%) of 190 tested patients presented at least 1 positive sample for EBV. Older age, the use of sirolimus, everolimus, and steroids were associated with EBV-DNA positivity in the univariate analysis. Nine (1.7%) of 523 patients had PTLD. Incidence rate of PTLD in the KT cohort was 0.19/100 person year follow-up (95% confidence interval, 0.09-0.37). One of 9 patients developed early PTLD and was a high-risk patient. Only this PTLD case was positive for EBV. No PTLD case had an EBV-VL superior to 4000 copies/mL.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that the keystone of PTLD diagnosis is the clinical suspicion. Our study suggests that, in line with guidelines, EBV-VL assays may be avoided in low-risk patients in the absence of a strong clinical PTLD suspicion without increasing patients' risk of developing PTLD. This represents a safe and cost-saving clinical strategy for our center.

Kidney Transplant Recipients' Perspectives on Cardiovascular Disease and Related Risk Factors After Transplantation: A Qualitative Study

Background

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major cause of mortality among kidney transplant recipients (KTRs). These patients have a high prevalence of risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. Despite regular medical care, few of them reach the recommended therapeutic targets. The objective of this study is to describe KTRs' perspectives on CVD and related risk factors, as well as their priorities for posttransplant care.

Methods

Twenty-six KTRs participated in a semistructured interview about their personal experience and offered their perspectives on CVD risk factors posttransplant. The interview was digitally recorded and the transcripts were analyzed using a thematic and content methodology.

Results

CVD and related risk factors appear to be underestimated and trivialized. Only 2 of 26 patients identified CVD prevention and treatment as a priority. The most important posttransplant priorities identified by patients were related to immunosuppressive drugs (13 of 26), posttransplant follow-up (10) and graft survival (9). However, 21 of 26 patients stated they wanted to be better informed about posttransplant CVD risk factors.

Conclusions

CVD and related risk factors are not a priority for KTRs, and the importance of CVD is underestimated and trivialized. KTRs did recommend that tailored information be provided by various professionals and at several points in the transplantation process. This knowledge will help us develop a new approach to increase awareness of posttransplant CVD and related risk factors.

Vitamin D status in renal transplant recipients living in a low-latitude city: association with body fat, cardiovascular risk factors, estimated glomerular filtration rate and proteinuria

Recent evidence suggests that vitamin D deficiency is associated with CVD, impaired kidney function and proteinuria. To date, no study has evaluated these associations in renal transplant recipients (RTR) adjusting for body adiposity assessed by a ‘gold standard’ method. This study aimed to evaluate the vitamin D status and its association with body adiposity, CVD risk factors, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and proteinuria in RTR, living in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (a low-latitude city (22°54'10"S)), taking into account body adiposity evaluated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). This cross-sectional study included 195 RTR (114 men) aged 47·6 (sd11·2) years. Nutritional evaluation included anthropometry and DXA. Risk factors for CVD were hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidaemia and the metabolic syndrome. eGFR was evaluated using the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration equation. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentration was used to define vitamin D status as follows: 10 % (n19) had vitamin D deficiency (<16 ng/ml), 43 % (n85) had insufficiency (16–30 ng/ml) and 47 % (n91) had sufficiency (>30 ng/ml). Percentage of body fat (DXA) was significantly associated with vitamin D deficiency independently of age, sex and eGFR. Lower 25(OH)D was associated with higher odds of the metabolic syndrome and dyslipidaemia after adjustment for age, sex and eGFR, but not after additional adjustment for body fat. Hypertension and diabetes were not related to 25(OH)D. Lower serum 25(OH)D was associated with increasing proteinuria and decreasing eGFR even after adjustments for age, sex and percentage of body fat. This study suggests that in RTR of a low-latitude city hypovitaminosis D is common, and is associated with excessive body fat, decreased eGFR and increased proteinuria.

Daunting but Worthy Goal: Reducing the De Novo Cancer Incidence After Transplantation

Solid-organ transplant recipients are at increased risk of developing de novo malignancies compared with the general population, and malignancies become a major limitation in achieving optimal outcomes. The prevention and the management of posttransplant malignancies must be considered as a main goal in our transplant programs. For these patients, immunosuppression plays a major role in oncogenesis by both impairement of immunosurveillance, enhancement of chronic viral infection, and by direct prooncogenic effects. It is essential to manage the recipient with a long-term adapted screening program beginning before transplantation to use a prophylaxis to decrease infection-related cancer, to propose a viral monitoring, and to modulate the immunosuppression toward lower doses especially for calcineurin inhibitors. Indeed, strategies to induce tolerance or to allow a dramatic reduction of the immunosuppression burden are the more promising approaches for the reduction of the posttransplant malignancies.

Renal association clinical practice guideline in post-operative care in the kidney transplant recipient

These guidelines cover the care of patients from the period following kidney transplantation until the transplant is no longer working or the patient dies. During the early phase prevention of acute rejection and infection are the priority. After around 3-6 months, the priorities change to preservation of transplant function and avoiding the long-term complications of immunosuppressive medication (the medication used to suppress the immune system to prevent rejection). The topics discussed include organization of outpatient follow up, immunosuppressive medication, treatment of acute and chronic rejection, and prevention of complications. The potential complications discussed include heart disease, infection, cancer, bone disease and blood disorders. There is also a section on contraception and reproductive issues.Immediately after the introduction there is a statement of all the recommendations. These recommendations are written in a language that we think should be understandable by many patients, relatives, carers and other interested people. Consequently we have not reworded or restated them in this lay summary. They are graded 1 or 2 depending on the strength of the recommendation by the authors, and AD depending on the quality of the evidence that the recommendation is based on.

The Noninvasive Urinary Polyomavirus Haufen Test Predicts BK Virus Nephropathy in Children After Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation: A Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

After hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT), polyoma-BK virus is associated with hemorrhagic cystitis and also with polyomavirus nephropathy (PVN). However, the true burden of post-HCT PVN is unknown because kidney biopsies are avoided due to their bleeding risk. The novel, noninvasive urinary PV-Haufen test detects PVN in kidney transplant recipients with greater than 95% positive/negative predictive values. We hypothesized that the detection of PV-Haufen in voided urine samples-a positive PV-Haufen test-was also clinically significant after HCT.

METHODS

We examined 21 suitable urine samples from 14 patients (median age, 15 years; 71.4% male) who were selected from repositories for having varying degrees of BK viremia (range, 0-1.0 × 10 copies/mL), hemorrhagic cystitis (present/absent), and data on kidney function. Urine samples were obtained at a median of 88 days post-HCT.

RESULTS

The PV-Haufen were detected in 5 of 14 patients (35.7%) and 7 of 21 (33.3%) urine samples, with histologic confirmation of PVN in 1 autopsy specimen. After a median of 285 days post-HCT, patients with PV-Haufen had an increased risk of dialysis-dependent renal failure (P < 0.05). All 3 dialysis-dependent patients had PV-Haufen and died. The presence of urinary PV-Haufen was not significantly correlated with hemorrhagic cystitis. From the 16 urines collected during BK viremia, 43.8% were PV-Haufen-positive, and 56.2% were negative. The PV-Haufen were not present in the 5 urines from patients without concomitant BK-viremia.

CONCLUSIONS

In this proof-of-concept study, a positive PV-Haufen test was only seen in some patients with BK viremia and was not associated with hemorrhagic cystitis. The detection of PV-Haufen suggests underlying PVN with an increased risk of kidney failure and dialysis.

BK Polyomavirus and the Transplanted Kidney: Immunopathology and Therapeutic Approaches

BK polyomavirus is ubiquitous, with a seropositivity rate of over 75% in the adult population. Primary infection is thought to occur in the respiratory tract, but asymptomatic BK virus latency is established in the urothelium. In immunocompromised host, the virus can reactivate but rarely compromises kidney function except in renal grafts, where it causes a tubulointerstitial inflammatory response similar to acute rejection. Restoring host immunity against the virus is the cornerstone of treatment. This review covers the virus-intrinsic features, the posttransplant microenvironment as well as the host immune factors that underlie the pathophysiology of polyomavirus-associated nephropathy. Current and promising therapeutic approaches to treat or prevent this complication are discussed in relation to the complex immunopathology of this condition.

Tacrolimus Blood Level Fluctuation Predisposes to Coexisting BK Virus Nephropathy and Acute Allograft Rejection

BK virus nephropathy (BKVN) and allograft rejection are two distinct disease entities which occur at opposite ends of the immune spectrum. However, they coexist in renal transplant recipients. Predisposing factors for this coexistence remain elusive. We identified nine biopsy-proven BKVN patients with coexisting acute rejection, and 21 patients with BKVN alone. We retrospectively analyzed the dosage and blood concentrations of immunosuppressants during the 3-month period prior to the renal biopsy between the two patient groups. Compared to the BKVN alone group, renal function was noticeably worse in the coexistence group (p = 0.030). Regarding the dose and average drug level of immunosuppressants, there was no difference between the two groups. Interestingly, the coefficient of variance of tacrolimus trough blood level was noticeably higher during the 3-month period prior to the renal biopsy in the coexistence group (p = 0.010). Our novel findings suggest that a higher variability of tacrolimus trough level may be associated with the coexistence of BKVN and acute rejection. Since the prognosis is poor and the treatment is challenging in patients with coexisting BKVN and acute rejection, transplant clinicians should strive to avoid fluctuations in immunosuppressant drug levels in patients with either one of these two disease entities.

[Choosing wisely recommendations in nephrology]

The German Society of Internal Medicine ("Deutsche Gesellschaft für Innere Medizin", DGIM) founded the Choosing wisely initiative in order to address diagnostic and therapeutic procedures that are frequently inappropriately applied, whether this be in terms of over-, under-, or misuse of health services. The German Society of Nephrology ("Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nephrologie," DGfN) strongly supports the initiative and has contributed five positive and five negative recommendations. These ten recommendations are discussed in the current publication. The positive recommendations reflect the importance of early recognition of renal disease via simple blood and urine tests, the use of radiocontrast media in cases of impaired renal function, as well as the problems associated with low vaccination rates. Three of the negative recommendations are focused on hydration and diuretics. The remaining two negative recommendations concern angioplasty in cases of renal artery stenosis and the unconsidered use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

Early onset hyperuricemia is a prognostic marker for kidney graft failure: Propensity score matching analysis in a Korean multicenter cohort

It remains inconclusive whether hyperuricemia is a true risk factor for kidney graft failure. In the current study, we investigated the association of hyperuricemia and graft outcome. We performed a multi-center cohort study that included 2620 kidney transplant recipients. The patients were classified as either normouricemic or hyperuricemic at 3 months after transplantation. Hyperuricemia was defined as a serum uric acid level ≥ 7.0 mg/dL in males or ≥ 6.0 mg/dL in females or based on the use of urate-lowering medications. The two groups were compared before and after propensity score matching. A total of 657 (25.1%) patients were classified as hyperuricemic. The proportion of hyperuricemic patients increased over time, reaching 44.2% of the total cohort at 5 years after transplantation. Estimated glomerular filtration rate and donor type were independently associated with hyperuricemia. Hyperuricemia was associated with graft loss according to multiple Cox regression analysis before propensity score matching (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.56, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.14-2.13, P = 0.005) as well as after matching (HR = 1.65, 95% CI = 1.13-2.42, p = 0.010). Cox regression models using time-varying hyperuricemia or marginal structural models adjusted with time-varying eGFR also demonstrated significant hazards of hyperuricemia for graft loss. Cardiovascular events and recipient survival were not associated with hyperuricemia. Overall, hyperuricemia, especially early onset after transplantation, showed an increased risk for graft failure. Further studies are warranted to determine whether lowering serum uric acid levels would be beneficial to graft survival.

Antithymocyte globulins in renal transplantation-from lymphocyte depletion to lymphocyte activation: The doubled-edged sword

Compelling data suggest that lymphocyte depletion following T cell depleting therapy may induce prolonged CD4 T cell lymphopenia and trigger lymphocyte activation in some patients. These profound and non-reversible immune changes in T cell pool subsets are the consequence of both impaired thymic renewal and peripheral homeostatic proliferation. Chronic viral challenges by CMV play a major role in these immune alterations. Even when the consequences of CD4 T cell lymphopenia have been now well described, recent studies shed new light on the clinical consequences of immune activation. In this review, we will first focus on the mechanisms involved in T cell pool reconstitution after T cell depletion and further consider the clinical consequences of ATG-induced T cell activation and senescence in renal transplant recipients.

Posttransplant Anemia as a Prognostic Factor of Mortality in Kidney-Transplant Recipients

Background. Findings on the association between posttransplant anemia (PTA) and mortality in posttransplant patients are scarce. This study explored whether PTA shortly after kidney transplantation (KT) predicts mortality at up to 10 years' follow-up, stratified for chronic kidney disease (CKD) stages. Methods. PTA was divided into 3 categories according to the hemoglobin (Hb) value: severe (Hb < 10 g/dl), mild (10.0 g/dl ≤ Hb < 11.9 g/dl), or no PTA (Hb ≥ 12 g/dl). CKD stages were estimated using the CKD-EPI formula and divided into 2 groups: CKD1-2 and CKD3-5. Cox regression, stratified according to CKD, was performed to identify whether different categories of PTA predicted mortality in KT recipients. Results. Age, being female, and both mild and severe PTA contributed significantly to the Cox regression model on mortality in CKD1-2. In the Cox regression model for mortality in CKD3-5, age and severe PTA contributed significantly to this model. Conclusion. PTA shortly after KT increased the risk of mortality at up to 10 years' follow-up. Even mild PTA is associated with a 6-fold higher risk of mortality and severe PTA with a 10-fold higher risk of mortality in CKD1-2. Clinical evaluation and treatment of anemia might reduce the higher risk of mortality in patients with PTA in early stages of CKD after KT.

Low prevalence of Pneumocystis pneumonia in hospitalized patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: review of a clinical data warehouse

Objective In the era of powerful immunosuppression, opportunistic infections are an increasing concern in systemic lupus erythematosus. One of the best-studied opportunistic infections is Pneumocystis pneumonia; however, the prevalence of Pneumocystis pneumonia in systemic lupus erythematosus is not clearly defined. This study evaluates the prevalence of Pneumocystis pneumonia in hospitalized systemic lupus erythematosus patients, with a focus on validating the Pneumocystis pneumonia and systemic lupus erythematosus diagnoses with clinical information. Methods This retrospective cohort study evaluates the prevalence of Pneumocystis pneumonia in all systemic lupus erythematosus patients treated at Columbia University Medical Center-New York Presbyterian Hospital between January 2000 and September 2014, using electronic medical record data. Patients with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) and patients with renal transplants (including both early and late post-transplant patients) represented immunocompromised control groups. Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Pneumocystis pneumonia, HIV/AIDS, or renal transplant were identified using diagnostic codes from the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9). Results Out of 2013 hospitalized systemic lupus erythematosus patients, nine had presumed Pneumocystis pneumonia, yielding a low prevalence of Pneumocystis pneumonia in systemic lupus erythematosus of 0.45%. Three of the nine Pneumocystis pneumonia cases were patients with concomitant systemic lupus erythematosus and HIV/AIDS. Only one of these nine cases was histologically confirmed as Pneumocystis pneumonia, in a patient with concomitant systemic lupus erythematosus and HIV/AIDS and a CD4 count of 13 cells/mm³. The prevalence of Pneumocystis pneumonia in renal transplant patients and HIV/AIDS patients was 0.61% and 5.98%, respectively. Conclusion Given the reported high rate of adverse effects to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in systemic lupus erythematosus and the low prevalence of Pneumocystis pneumonia in hospitalized systemic lupus erythematosus patients, our data do not substantiate the need for Pneumocystis pneumonia prophylaxis in systemic lupus erythematosus patients, except in those with concurrent HIV/AIDS.

Poor predictability of QuantiFERON-TB assay in recipients and donors for tuberculosis development after kidney transplantation in an intermediate-TB-burden country

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB) is a common opportunistic infection after kidney transplantation (KT). The QuantiFERON-TB-Gold In-Tube test (QFT) is widely used for assessing latent TB; however, it is currently unclear whether the pre-KT QFT of the recipient and donor can predict post-KT TB.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed patients who received KT between January 2009 and December 2015 at Seoul National University Hospital. The QFT was performed in 458 KT recipients and 239 paired living donors, and 138 KT recipients underwent both the QFT and tuberculin skin test (TST). After excluding 12 patients diagnosed as having clinically latent TB, we evaluated whether the QFT of the recipient and donor was predictive for new-onset active TB after KT.

RESULTS

The QFT was positive in 101 (22.1%) recipients and associated with clinically latent TB before KT (P < 0.05). However, agreement between the TST and QFT was poor (κ = 0.327). Post-KT TB occurred in 1 of 95 recipients with a positive QFT, and 2 cases of TB occurred among 351 patients with a negative or indeterminate QFT. The incidence of TB was 242 cases/100,000 person-years among 446 KT recipients with a median follow-up of 30.2 months. The QFT of recipients could not predict post-KT TB in Poisson regression analysis (relative risk [RR], 1.847; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.168-20.373; P = 0.616). Of 234 living donor-recipient pairs, the QFT of the recipient (RR, 5.012; 95% CI, 0.301-83.430; P = 0.261) and QFT of the donor (RR, 1.758; 95% CI, 0.106-29.274; P = 0.694) could not predict post-KT TB.

CONCLUSION

The QFT of recipients or living donors pre-KT cannot predict the short-term development of post-KT TB in an intermediate TB-burden country.

Incidence of cardiovascular events and associated risk factors in kidney transplant patients: a competing risks survival analysis

BACKGROUND

The high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors among the renal transplant population accounts for increased mortality. The aim of this study is to determine the incidence of cardiovascular events and factors associated with cardiovascular events in these patients.

METHODS

An observational ambispective follow-up study of renal transplant recipients (n = 2029) in the health district of A Coruña (Spain) during the period 1981-2011 was completed. Competing risk survival analysis methods were applied to estimate the cumulative incidence of developing cardiovascular events over time and to identify which characteristics were associated with the risk of these events. Post-transplant cardiovascular events are defined as the presence of myocardial infarction, invasive coronary artery therapy, cerebral vascular events, new-onset angina, congestive heart failure, rhythm disturbances, peripheral vascular disease and cardiovascular disease and death. The cause of death was identified through the medical history and death certificate using ICD9 (390-459, except: 427.5, 435, 446, 459.0).

RESULTS

The mean age of patients at the time of transplantation was 47.0 ± 14.2 years; 62% were male. 16.5% had suffered some cardiovascular disease prior to transplantation and 9.7% had suffered a cardiovascular event. The mean follow-up period for the patients with cardiovascular event was 3.5 ± 4.3 years. Applying competing risk methodology, it was observed that the accumulated incidence of the event was 5.0% one year after transplantation, 8.1% after five years, and 11.9% after ten years. After applying multivariate models, the variables with an independent effect for predicting cardiovascular events are: male sex, age of recipient, previous cardiovascular disorders, pre-transplant smoking and post-transplant diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study makes it possible to determine in kidney transplant patients, taking into account competitive events, the incidence of post-transplant cardiovascular events and the risk factors of these events. Modifiable risk factors are identified, owing to which, changes in said factors would have a bearing of the incidence of events.

Outcome of Renal Transplant in Recipients With Vasculitis

OBJECTIVES

End-stage renal disease develops in a high percentage of patients with vasculitis, in whom kidney transplant has become a therapeutic option. However, limited data are available on the prognosis and outcomes after kidney transplant in these patients. We aimed to compare the long-term graft survival and graft function in 8 renal transplant recipients with vasculitis (granulomatosis with polyangiitis, microscopic polyangiitis, Goodpasture syndrome, and Henoch-Schonlein purpura) with the other kidney recipients at a single center.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of patients followed for chronic renal failure associated with vasculitis before renal transplant. We excluded patients with no biopsy-proven nephropathy.

RESULTS

There was no difference in the occurrence of metabolic and cardiovascular complications in our case group compared with the other graft recipients. Infections were frequent and included cytomegalovirus and urinary tract infection. The rates of bacterial and viral infection were equivalent in our population. The incidence of allograft loss was estimated at 1.8%, less than that seen in our entire transplant population. The presence of vasculitis was not significantly related to renal failure (P = .07). Extrarenal relapse occurred in 1 patient with microscopic polyangiitis. Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody levels in patients with granulomatosis with polyangiitis and microscopic polyangiitis did not seem to influence the renal outcome (P = .08). Circulating antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies were associated with the development of vascular lesions in the graft but were not significantly correlated with graft survival (P = .07).

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports the theory that renal transplant is an effective treatment option for patients with end-stage renal disease secondary to vasculitis. These patients fare similarly to, if not better than, other patients.

Comparison of QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube (QFT-GIT) and tuberculin skin test (TST) for diagnosis of latent tuberculosis in haemodialysis (HD) patients: a meta-analysis of κ estimates

Diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) is a concern in haemodialysis (HD) patients. Many studies have compared QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube (QFT-GIT) and tuberculin skin test (TST) for detecting LTBI and reported the κ statistic of agreement between QFT-GIT and TST in HD patients. The present study aimed to systematically review this literature and conduct meta-analysis of individual studies that estimated the κ between QFT-GIT with TST among HD patients. All relevant published studies that were available as full-text were obtained by searching Medline (1950), Web of Sciences (1945), Scopus (1973) through May 2016. The κ was re-estimated from the individual studies and pooled using random effect meta-analysis. Subgroup analysis and meta-regression were applied to evaluate the effect of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination, TST cut-off points, quality of studies, sample size and age on variation of κ estimate. Eight studies involving 901 HD patients were included in meta-analysis. The pooled κ estimate was 0·28 (I 2 = 18·4%, P = 0·239, 95% confidence intervals 0·22-0·34). The discordance of TST-/QFT-GIT+ was more than TST+/QFT-GIT-. History of BCG vaccination, TST cut-off points and age are related to variation of κ estimates. TST and QFT-GIT are not comparable in detecting LTBI in HD patients. The higher TST-/QFT-GIT+ ratio compared with TST+/QFT-GIT- ratio, may indicate the superiority of QFT-GIT over TST for detection LTBI in HD patients.