Optimization of spoiled gradient-echo phase imaging for in vivo localization of a focused ultrasound beam

Temperature mapping of thermal ablation using MRI

MRI is a unique tool for minimally invasive thermal ablation in that it can provide both targeting, monitoring and control during the procedure. Monitoring is achieved by using MRI temperature mapping. In this review the relevant physics is explained as a background to the state-of-the-art methods for computing temperature maps as well as the more cutting edge methods. The review covers both methods to monitor heating and cooling of tissue and explains temperature mapping using Proton Resonance Frequency shift, T1 mapping, diffusion mapping, R2* mapping and thermal models.

MR thermometry-based feedback control of efficacy and safety in minimum-time thermal therapies: Phantom andin-vivoevaluations

The experimental validation of a model-based, thermal therapy control system which automatically and simultaneously achieves the specified efficacy and safety objectives of the treatment is reported. MR-thermometry measurements are used in real-time to control the power of a stationary, focused ultrasound transducer in order to achieve the desired treatment outcome in minimum time without violating the imposed safety constraints. Treatment efficacy is quantified in terms of the thermal dose delivered to the target. Normal tissue safety is ensured by automatically maintaining normal tissue temperature below the imposed limit in the user-specified locations. To reflect hardware limitations, constraints on the maximum applied power are also imposed. At the pretreatment stage, MR imaging and thermometry are used to localize the treatment target and identify thermal and actuation models. The results of phantom and canine experiments demonstrate that spatially-distributed, real-time MR temperature measurements enhance one's ability to robustly achieve the desired treatment outcome in minimum time without violating safety constraints. Post-treatment evaluation of the outcome using T2-weighted images of canine muscle showed good spatial correlation between the sonicated area and thermally damaged tissue.

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance guided electrophysiology studies

Catheter ablation is a first line treatment for many cardiac arrhythmias and is generally performed under x-ray fluoroscopy guidance. However, current techniques for ablating complex arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia are associated with suboptimal success rates and prolonged radiation exposure. Pre-procedure 3D CMR has improved understanding of the anatomic basis of complex arrhythmias and is being used for planning and guidance of ablation procedures. A particular strength of CMR compared to other imaging modalities is the ability to visualize ablation lesions. Post-procedure CMR is now being applied to assess ablation lesion location and permanence with the goal of indentifying factors leading to procedure success and failure. In the future, intra-procedure real-time CMR, together with the ability to image complex 3-D arrhythmogenic anatomy and target additional ablation to regions of incomplete lesion formation, may allow for more successful treatment of even complex arrhythmias without exposure to ionizing radiation. Development of clinical grade CMR compatible electrophysiology devices is required to transition intra-procedure CMR from pre-clinical studies to more routine use in patients.

In vitro and in vivo brain ablation created by high-intensity focused ultrasound and monitored by MRI

In this paper, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is investigated for monitoring small and large lesions created by high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) in freshly excised lamb brain and in rabbit brain in vivo. A single-element spherically focused transducer of 5 cm diameter, focusing at 10 cm and operating at 1 MHz was used. A prototype MRI-compatible positioning device that is used to navigate the transducer is described. The effects of HIFU were investigated using T1-W and T2-W fast spin echo (FSE) and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR). T2-W FSE and FLAIR show better anatomical details within the brain than T1-W FSE, but with T1-W FSE, the contrast between lesion and brain is higher for both thermal and bubbly lesions. The best contrast between lesion and brain with T1-W FSE is obtained with TR above 500 ms, whereas with T2-W FSE, the best contrast is observed between 40 and 60 ms. The maximum contrast to noise ratio (CNR) measured with T1-W FSE was approximately 20. With T2-W FSE, the corresponding CNR was approximately 12. With this system, we were able to create large lesions (by producing overlapping lesions), and it was possible to monitor these lesions with MRI with excellent contrast. The length of the lesions in vivo brain was much higher than the length in vitro, indicating that the penetration in the in vitro brain is limited, possibly by reflection due to trapped bubbles in the blood vessels. This paper demonstrates that HIFU has the potential to treat brain tumors in humans. This could be done either using a single-element transducer with a frequency around 1 MHZ or using a multi-element transducer.

MRI-based thermal dosimetry and diffusion-weighted imaging of MRI-guided focused ultrasound thermal ablation of uterine fibroids

PURPOSE

To investigate tissue changes observed in diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) and its relation to contrast imaging, thermal dosimetry, and changes in the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) after MRI-guided focused ultrasound surgery (MRgFUS) of uterine fibroids.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Imaging data were analyzed from 45 fibroids in 42 women treated with MRgFUS. The areas of the hyperintense regions in DWI and of nonperfused regions in T1-weighted contrast enhanced imaging (both acquired immediately after treatment) were compared with each other and to thermal dosimetry based estimates. Changes in ADC were also calculated.

RESULTS

Hyperintense regions were observed in 35/45 fibroids in DWI. When present, the areas of these regions were comparable on average to the thermal dose estimates and to the nonperfused regions, except for in several large treatments in which the nonperfused region extended beyond the treated area. ADC increased in 19 fibroids and decreased in the others.

CONCLUSION

DWI changes, which includes changes in both in T2 and ADC, may be useful in many cases to delineate the treated region resulting from MRgFUS. However, clear DWI changes were not always observed, and in some large treatments, the extent of the nonperfused region was under estimated. ADC changes immediately after MRgFUS were unpredictable.

Evaluation of referenceless thermometry in MRI-guided focused ultrasound surgery of uterine fibroids

PURPOSE

To clinically assess a previously described method (Rieke et.al., Magn Reson Med 2004) to produce more motion-robust MRI-based temperature images using data acquired during MRI-guided focused ultrasound surgery (MRgFUS) of uterine fibroids.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The method ("referenceless thermometry") uses surface fitting in nonheated regions of individual phase images to extrapolate and then remove background phase variations that are unrelated to temperature changes. We tested this method using images from 100 sonications selected from 33 patient MRgFUS treatments. Temperature measurements and thermal dose contours estimated with the referenceless method were compared with those produced with the standard phase-difference technique. Fitting accuracy and noise level were also measured.

RESULTS

In 92/100 sonications, the difference between the two measurements was less than 3 degrees C. The average difference in the measurements was 1.5 +/- 1.4 degrees C. Small motion artifacts were observed in the phase-difference imaging when the difference was greater than 3 degrees C. The method failed in two cases. The mean absolute error in the surface fit in baseline images corresponded to a temperature error of 0.8 +/- 1.4 degrees C. The noise level was approximately 40% lower than the phase-difference method. Thermal dose contours calculated from the two methods agreed well on average.

CONCLUSION

Based on the small error when compared with the standard technique, this method appears to be adequate for temperature monitoring of MRgFUS in uterine fibroids and may prove useful for monitoring temperature changes in moving organs.

Magnetic resonance acoustic radiation force imaging

Acoustic radiation force impulse imaging is an elastography method developed for ultrasound imaging that maps displacements produced by focused ultrasound pulses systematically applied to different locations. The resulting images are "stiffness weighted" and yield information about local mechanical tissue properties. Here, the feasibility of magnetic resonance acoustic radiation force imaging (MR-ARFI) was tested. Quasistatic MR elastography was used to measure focal displacements using a one-dimensional MRI pulse sequence. A 1.63 or 1.5 MHz transducer supplied ultrasound pulses which were triggered by the magnetic resonance imaging hardware to occur before a displacement-encoding gradient. Displacements in and around the focus were mapped in a tissue-mimicking phantom and in an ex vivo bovine kidney. They were readily observed and increased linearly with acoustic power in the phantom (R2=0.99). At higher acoustic power levels, the displacement substantially increased and was associated with irreversible changes in the phantom. At these levels, transverse displacement components could also be detected. Displacements in the kidney were also observed and increased after thermal ablation. While the measurements need validation, the authors have demonstrated the feasibility of detecting small displacements induced by low-power ultrasound pulses using an efficient magnetic resonance imaging pulse sequence that is compatible with tracking of a dynamically steered ultrasound focal spot, and that the displacement increases with acoustic power. MR-ARFI has potential for elastography or to guide ultrasound therapies that use low-power pulsed ultrasound exposures, such as drug delivery.

Isolated kidney phantom for development of biothermal vascular models with application to high intensity focused ultrasound therapy

A methodology using magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is presented for identifying thermally significant blood vessels in isolated kidneys, specifically for use in biothermal model development with application to high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). A combination of a proven preservation technique, newly developed MR-compatible experimental procedures and the refinement of MR pulse sequence parameters was used to determine vascular characteristics using high-resolution three-dimensional time-of-flight MRA image of flow through isolated kidneys. Results presented are twofold. First, improved vessel visibility was attained through decreasing the magnetic resonance imaging bandwidth from 150 to 30 Hz/pixel while simultaneously increasing the echo time, repetition time, and flip angle; vascular center line extraction showed an 18% improvement in the number of vessel segments detected and a 23% increase in length of the terminal segments over a base line technique without improvements. Second, the overall system was shown to be practical to determine vascular flow effects during HIFU heating; testing results from heating the kidney with HIFU are presented, showing a decrease of average kidney temperature with an increase of flow rate through the kidney with localized cooling demonstrated surrounding known vessel locations.

Temperature mapping considerations in the breast with line scan echo planar spectroscopic imaging

A line-scan echo planar spectroscopic imaging (LSEPSI) sequence was used to serially acquire spectra from 4,096 voxels every 6.4 s throughout the breasts of nine female subjects in vivo. Data from the serial acquisitions were analyzed to determine the potential of the technique to characterize temperature changes using either the water frequency alone or the water-methylene frequency difference. Fluctuations of the apparent temperature change under these conditions of no heating were smallest using the water-methylene frequency difference, most probably due to a substantial reduction of motion effects both within and without the imaged plane. The approach offers considerable advantages over other methods for temperature change monitoring in the breast with magnetic resonance but suffers from some limitations, including the unavailability of lipid and water resonances in some voxels as well as a surprisingly large distribution of water-methylene frequency differences, which may preclude absolute temperature measurement.

MR imaging-guided interventions in the genitourinary tract: an evolving concept

MR imaging-guided interventions are well established in routine patient care in many parts of the world. There are many approaches, depending on magnet design and clinical need, based on MR imaging providing excellent inherent tissue contrast without ionizing radiation risk for patients. MR imaging-guided minimally invasive therapeutic procedures have advantages over conventional surgical procedures. In the genitourinary tract, MR imaging guidance has a role in tumor detection, localization, and staging and can provide accurate image guidance for minimally invasive procedures. The advent of molecular and metabolic imaging and use of higher strength magnets likely will improve diagnostic accuracy and allow targeted therapy to maximize disease control and minimize side effects.

Treatment monitoring and thermometry for therapeutic focused ultrasound

Therapeutic ultrasound is currently enjoying increasingly widespread clinical use especially for the treatment of cancer of the prostate, liver, kidney, breast, pancreas and bone, as well as for the treatment of uterine fibroids. The optimum method of treatment delivery varies between anatomical sites, but in all cases monitoring of the treatment is crucial if extensive clinical acceptance is to be achieved. Monitoring not only provides the operating clinician with information relating to the effectiveness of treatment, but can also provide an early alert to the onset of adverse effects in normal tissue. This paper reviews invasive and non-invasive monitoring methods that have been applied to assess the extent of treatment during the delivery of therapeutic ultrasound in the laboratory and clinic (follow-up after treatment is not reviewed in detail). The monitoring of temperature and, importantly, the way in which this measurement can be used to estimate the delivered thermal dose, is dealt with as a separate special case. Already therapeutic ultrasound has reached a stage of development where it is possible to attempt real-time feedback during exposure in order to optimize each and every delivery of ultrasound energy. To date, data from MR imaging have shown better agreement with the size of regions of damage than those from diagnostic ultrasound, but novel ultrasonic techniques may redress this balance. Whilst MR currently offers the best method for non-invasive temperature measurement, the ultrasound techniques under development, which could potentially offer more rapid visualisation of results, are discussed.

A review of magnetic resonance imaging-guided focused ultrasound surgery of uterine fibroids

Uterine fibroids are a significant cause of morbidity for women of reproductive age. Over the past decade, minimally invasive treatment options are becoming increasingly popular. A new, Food and Drug Administration-approved noninvasive treatment option is magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound surgery, which has the potential to become a treatment of choice for selected patients. We review the technical aspects of the procedure of magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound surgery for treatment of uterine fibroids, potential difficulties with treatment planning, and clinical trial results to date. We also describe current developments in treatment imaging and treatment optimization.

Uterine Leiomyomas: MR Imaging–guided Focused Ultrasound Surgery—Results of Different Treatment Protocols1

PURPOSE

To prospectively assess patient response (after 12 months) to magnetic resonance (MR) imaging-guided focused ultrasound surgery in treatment of uterine leiomyomas by using two treatment protocols.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This prospective clinical trial was approved by institutional review boards and was HIPAA compliant. After giving informed consent, patients with symptomatic leiomyomas were consecutively enrolled and treated at one of five U.S. centers by using an original or a modified protocol. Outcomes were assessed with the symptom severity score (SSS) obtained at baseline and 3, 6, and 12 months after treatment. Adverse events (AEs) were recorded. Statistical analysis included Student t test, Fisher exact test, analysis of covariance, Spearman correlation, and logistic regression.

RESULTS

One hundred sixty patients had a mean SSS of 62.1 +/- 16.3 (standard deviation) at baseline, which decreased to 35.5 +/- 19.5 at 3 months (P<.001) and to 32.3 +/- 19.8 at 6 months (P<.001) and was 32.7 +/- 21.0 at 12 months (P<.001). Ninety-six patients (mean age, 46.0 years +/- 4.6) were treated with an original protocol, and 64 (mean age, 45.9 years +/- 3.9) were treated with a modified protocol. Patients in the modified group had a significantly greater SSS decrease at 3 months (P=.037) than those in the original group, and 73% of those in the original group and 91% of those in the modified group reported a significant decrease in SSS (of 10 points or greater) at 12 months. No serious AEs were recorded. Fewer AEs were reported in the modified group than in the original group (25% vs 13% reporting no event). Of evaluable patients, fewer in the modified group chose alternative treatment (28%) than in the original group (37%).

CONCLUSION

MR imaging-guided focused ultrasound surgery results in symptomatic improvement, sustained to 12 months after treatment. Treatment with a modified protocol results in greater clinical effectiveness and fewer AEs.

A case of hepatocellular carcinoma treated by MR-guided focused ultrasound ablation with respiratory gating

Focused ultrasound surgery (FUS) is a method of noninvasive focal thermal ablation. Temperature-sensitive phase-difference magnetic resonance (MR) imaging allows monitoring of the focal point and measurement of tissue temperature elevation in real time, ensuring delivery of a therapeutic dose. A newly developed respiratory monitoring system enables us to track liver tumors, which move with respiration. We report our initial experience using MR-guided FUS with respiratory gating in successfully treating a hepatocellular carcinoma 15 mm in diameter.

Quality assurance and system stability of a clinical MRI-guided focused ultrasound system: four-year experience

To retrospectively evaluate the four-year experience of a quality assurance method for a MRI-guided focused ultrasound system that uses temperature maps acquired during heating in an ultrasound/MRI phantom. This quality assurance method was performed before 148 clinical uterine fibroid thermal ablation treatments. The stability of the peak temperature rise, the targeting accuracy, the shape of the heated zone, and the noise level in the imaging was evaluated. The peak temperature rise was mostly stable for the first three years. An increase in heating was observed when the system was replaced after year three. Detection of this increase was taken into account in the subsequent clinical treatments. A small secondary hotspot was detected by the temperature maps and was seen to be resolved after system calibration. The average standard deviation in unheated regions of the phantom in the temperature maps was 0.5 +/- 0.2 degrees C; it was less than 1 degrees C in all but one procedure. The average initial targeting error was 2.8 +/- 1.8 and 2.8 +/- 2.1 mm in two radial directions and 7.7 +/- 2.9 mm along the ultrasound beam direction. The width of the heating profile was consistent over the four years. This simple method to evaluate the performance appeared to be sensitive to small changes in system performance, which was adequately stable over a four-year time period.

MR thermometry characterization of a hyperthermia ultrasound array designed using the k-space computational method

Background

Ultrasound induced hyperthermia is a useful adjuvant to radiation therapy in the treatment of prostate cancer. A uniform thermal dose (43°C for 30 minutes) is required within the targeted cancerous volume for effective therapy. This requires specific ultrasound phased array design and appropriate thermometry method. Inhomogeneous, acoustical, three-dimensional (3D) prostate models and economical computational methods provide necessary tools to predict the appropriate shape of hyperthermia phased arrays for better focusing. This research utilizes the k-space computational method and a 3D human prostate model to design an intracavitary ultrasound probe for hyperthermia treatment of prostate cancer. Evaluation of the probe includes ex vivo and in vivo controlled hyperthermia experiments using the noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) thermometry.

Methods

A 3D acoustical prostate model was created using photographic data from the Visible Human Project^®. The k-space computational method was used on this coarse grid and inhomogeneous tissue model to simulate the steady state pressure wavefield of the designed phased array using the linear acoustic wave equation. To ensure the uniformity and spread of the pressure in the length of the array, and the focusing capability in the width of the array, the equally-sized elements of the 4 × 20 elements phased array were 1 × 14 mm. A probe was constructed according to the design in simulation using lead zerconate titanate (PZT-8) ceramic and a Delrin^® plastic housing. Noninvasive MRI thermometry and a switching feedback controller were used to accomplish ex vivo and in vivo hyperthermia evaluations of the probe.

Results

Both exposimetry and k-space simulation results demonstrated acceptable agreement within 9%. With a desired temperature plateau of 43.0°C, ex vivo and in vivo controlled hyperthermia experiments showed that the MRI temperature at the steady state was 42.9 ± 0.38°C and 43.1 ± 0.80°C, respectively, for 20 minutes of heating.

Conclusion

Unlike conventional computational methods, the k-space method provides a powerful tool to predict pressure wavefield in large scale, 3D, inhomogeneous and coarse grid tissue models. Noninvasive MRI thermometry supports the efficacy of this probe and the feedback controller in an in vivo hyperthermia treatment of canine prostate.

Uterine leiomyomas: MR imaging-based thermometry and thermal dosimetry during focused ultrasound thermal ablation

PURPOSE

To retrospectively evaluate magnetic resonance (MR) imaging-based thermometry and thermal dosimetry during focused ultrasound treatments of uterine leiomyomas (ie, fibroids).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All patients gave written informed consent for the focused ultrasound treatments and the current HIPAA-compliant retrospective study, both of which were institutional review board approved. Thermometry performed during the treatments of 64 fibroids in 50 women (mean age, 46.6 years +/- 4.5 [standard deviation]) was used to create thermal dose maps. The areas that reached dose values of 240 and 18 equivalent minutes at 43 degrees C were compared with the nonperfused regions measured on contrast material-enhanced MR images by using the Bland-Altman method. Volume changes in treated fibroids after 6 months were compared with volume changes in nontreated fibroids and with MR-based thermal dose estimates.

RESULTS

While the thermal dose estimates were shown to have a clear relationship with resulting nonperfused regions, the nonperfused areas were, on average, larger than the dose estimates (means of 1.9 +/- 0.7 and 1.2 +/- 0.4 times as large for areas that reached 240- and 18-minute threshold dose values, respectively). Good correlation was observed for smaller treatment volumes at the lower dose threshold (mean ratio, 1.0 +/- 0.3), but for larger treatment volumes, the nonperfused region extended to locations within the fibroid that clearly were not heated. Variations in peak temperature increase were as large as a factor of two, both between patients and within individual treatments. On average, the fibroid volume reduction at 6 months increased as the ablated volume estimated by using the thermal dose increased.

CONCLUSION

Study results showed good correlation between thermal dose estimates and resulting nonperfused areas for smaller ablated volumes. For larger treatment volumes, nonperfused areas could extend within the fibroid to unheated areas.

MR guided focused ultrasound: technical acceptance measures for a clinical system

Magnetic resonance (MR) guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) is a hybrid technique which offers efficient and safe focused ultrasound (FUS) treatments of uterine fibroids under MR guidance and monitoring. As a therapy device, MRgFUS requires systematic testing over a wide range of operational parameters prior to use in the clinical environment. We present technical acceptance tests and data for the first clinical MRgFUS system, ExAblate 2000 (InSightec Inc., Haifa, Israel), that has been FDA approved for treating uterine fibroids. These tests characterize MRgFUS by employing MR temperature measurements in tissue mimicking phantoms. The coronal scan plane is empirically demonstrated to be most reliable for measuring temperature elevations resulting from high intensity ultrasound (US) pulses ('sonications') and shows high sensitivity to changes in sonication parameters. Temperatures measured in the coronal plane were used as a measure of US energy deposited within the focal spot for a range of sonication parameters used in clinical treatments: spot type, spot length, output power, sonication duration, US frequency, and depth of sonication. In addition, MR images acquired during sonications were used to measure effective diameters and lengths of available sonication spot types and lengths. At a constant 60 W output power, the effective spot type diameters were measured to vary between 4.7 +/- 0.3 mm and 6.6 +/- 0.4 mm; treatment temperatures were found to decrease with increasing spot diameter. Prescribing different spot lengths was found to have no effect on the measured length or on measured temperatures. Tests of MRgFUS positioning accuracy determined errors in the direction parallel to the propagation of the US beam to be significantly greater than those in the perpendicular direction; most sonication spots were erroneously positioned towards the FUS transducer. The tests reported here have been demonstrated to be sufficiently sensitive to detect water leakage inside the FUS transducer. The data presented could be used for comparison by those conducting acceptance tests on other clinical MRgFUS systems.

Magnetic resonance temperature imaging for focused ultrasound surgery: a review

Magnetic resonance temperature imaging (MRTI) is an enabling technology that has recently demonstrated the potential to bring the emerging minimally invasive image-guided thermal therapy procedures, such as radiofrequency, microwave, laser, ultrasound, and cryosurgery, into the clinical setting with a level of safety and efficacy not previously possible. By coupling the wealth of soft tissue contrast mechanisms available with magnetic resonance imaging with its intrinsic temperature sensitivity, magnetic resonance imaging is in a unique position to provide image-guided treatment planning and verification and quantitative or qualitative feedback during treatment delivery, heightening of the control the physician has over the method, and enhancement of the ability to deliver conformal treatments. The basic principles behind MRTI technology and its application to minimally invasive thermal therapy during ultrasound thermal therapy delivery are reviewed in this study.

k-space inherited parallel acquisition (KIPA): application on dynamic magnetic resonance imaging thermometry

In this study, a novel method for dynamic parallel image acquisition and reconstruction is presented. In this method, called k-space inherited parallel acquisition (KIPA), localized reconstruction coefficients are used to achieve higher reduction factors, and lower noise and artifact levels compared to that of generalized autocalibrating partially parallel acquisition (GRAPPA) reconstruction. In KIPA, the full k-space for the first frame and the partial k-space for later frames are required to reconstruct a whole series of images. Reconstruction coefficients calculated for different segments of k-space from the first frame data set are used to estimate missing k-space lines in corresponding k-space segments of other frames. The local determination of KIPA reconstruction coefficients is essential to adjusting them according to the local signal-to-noise ratio characteristics of k-space data. The proposed algorithm is applicable to dynamic imaging with arbitrary k-space sampling trajectories. Simulations of magnetic resonance thermometry using the KIPA method with a reduction factor of 6 and using dynamic imaging studies of human subjects with reduction factors of 4 and 6 have been performed to prove the feasibility of our method and to show apparent improvement in image quality in comparison with GRAPPA for dynamic imaging.

Analysis of factors important for transurethral ultrasound prostate heating using MR temperature feedback

The feasibility of using MR thermometry for temperature feedback to control a transurethral ultrasound heating applicator with planar transducers was investigated. The sensitivity of a temperature-based feedback algorithm to spatial (control point area, slice thickness, angular alignment) and non-spatial (imaging time, temperature uncertainty) parameters was evaluated through numerical simulations. The angular alignment of the control point with the ultrasound beam was an important parameter affecting the average spatial error in heat delivery. The other spatial parameters were less influential, thus providing an opportunity to reduce spatial resolution for increased SNR in the MR imaging. The update time was the most important non-spatial parameter determining the performance of the control algorithm. Combined non-spatial and spatial parameters achieved acceptable performance with a voxel size of 3 mm x 3 mm, a 10 mm slice thickness and a 5 s update time. Temperature uncertainty of up to 2 degrees C had little effect on the performance of the control algorithm but did reduce the average error slightly due to a systematic, noise-induced overestimation of the boundary temperature. These simulations imply that MR thermometry performed on clinical 1.5 T imaging systems is of sufficient quality for use as thermal feedback for conformal prostate thermal therapy with transurethral ultrasound heating applicators incorporating planar transducers.

Magnetic resonance temperature imaging

Continuous, real-time, 3D temperature mapping during a hyperthermic procedure may provide (i) enhanced safety by visualizing temperature maps in and around the treated region, (ii) improved efficiency by adapting local energy deposition with feedback coupling algorithms and (iii) therapy end-points based on the accumulated thermal dose. Non-invasive mapping of temperature changes can be achieved with MRI and may be based on temperature dependent MRI parameters. The excellent linearity of the temperature dependency of the proton resonance frequency (PRF) and its near-independence with respect to tissue type make the PRF-based methods the preferred choice for many applications, in particular at mid- to-high field strength (> or =0.5 T). The PRF methods employ RF-spoiled gradient echo imaging methods and incorporate fat suppression techniques for most organs. A standard deviation of less than 1 degrees C, for a temporal resolution below 1 s and a spatial resolution of approximately 2 mm is feasible for immobile tissues. Special attention is paid to methods for reducing artifacts in MR temperature mapping caused by intra-scan and inter-scan motion and motion and temperature-induced susceptibility effects in mobile tissues. Real-time image processing and visualization techniques, together with accelerated MRI acquisition techniques, are described because of their potential for therapy guidance.

Effects of spatial and temporal resolution for MR image-guided thermal ablation of prostate with transurethral ultrasound

PURPOSE

To describe approaches for determining optimal spatial and temporal resolutions for the proton resonance frequency shift method of quantitative magnetic resonance temperature imaging (MRTI) guidance of transurethral ultrasonic prostate ablation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Temperature distributions of two transurethral ultrasound applicators (90 degrees sectored tubular and planar arrays) for canine prostate ablation were measured via MRTI during in vivo sonication, and agree well with two-dimensional finite difference model simulations at various spatial resolutions. Measured temperature distributions establish the relevant signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) range for thermometry in an interventional MR scanner, and are reconstructed at different resolutions to compare resultant temperature measurements. Various temporal resolutions are calculated by averaging MRTI frames.

RESULTS

When noise is added to simulated temperature distributions for tubular and planar applicators, the minimum root mean squared (RMS) error is achieved by reconstructing to pixel sizes of 1.9 and 1.7 mm, respectively. In in vivo measurements, low spatial resolution MRTI data are shown to reduce the noise without significantly affecting thermal dose calculations. Temporal resolution of 0.66 frames/minute leads to measurement errors of more than 12 degrees C during rapid heating.

CONCLUSION

Optimizing MRTI pixel size entails balancing large pixel SNR gain with accuracy in representing underlying temperature distributions.

Simultaneous radiofrequency (RF) heating and magnetic resonance (MR) thermal mapping using an intravascular MR imaging/RF heating system

Previous studies have confirmed the possibility of using an intravascular MR imaging guidewire (MRIG) as a heating source to enhance vascular gene transfection/expression. This motivated us to develop a new intravascular system that can perform MR imaging, radiofrequncy (RF) heating, and MR temperature monitoring simultaneously in an MR scanner. To validate this concept, a series of mathematical simulations of RF power loss along a 0.032-inch MRIG and RF energy spatial distribution were performed to determine the optimum RF heating frequency. Then, an RF generator/amplifier and a filter box were built. The possibility for simultaneous RF heating and MR thermal mapping of the system was confirmed in vitro using a phantom, and the obtained thermal mapping profile was compared with the simulated RF power distribution. Subsequently, the feasibility of simultaneous RF heating and temperature monitoring was successfully validated in vivo in the aorta of living rabbits. This MR imaging/RF heating system offers a potential tool for intravascular MR-mediated, RF-enhanced vascular gene therapy.

Partially parallel imaging with phase-sensitive data: Increased temporal resolution for magnetic resonance temperature imaging

Magnetic resonance temperature imaging can be used to monitor the progress of thermal ablation therapies, increasing treatment efficacy and improving patient safety. High temporal resolution is important when therapies rapidly heat tissue, but many approaches to faster image acquisition compromise image resolution, slice coverage, or phase sensitivity. Partially parallel imaging techniques offer the potential for improved temporal resolution without forcing such concessions. Although these techniques perturb image phase, relative phase changes between dynamically acquired phase-sensitive images, such as those acquired for MR temperature imaging, can be reliably measured through partially parallel imaging techniques using reconstruction filters that remain constant across the series. Partially parallel and non-accelerated phase-difference-sensitive data can be obtained through arrays of surface coils using this method. Average phase differences measured through partially parallel and fully Fourier encoded images are virtually identical, while phase noise increases with g(sqrt)L as in standard partially parallel image acquisitions..

Interleaved echo-planar imaging for fast multiplanar magnetic resonance temperature imaging of ultrasound thermal ablation therapy

PURPOSE

To develop a multiplanar magnetic resonance temperature imaging (MRTI) technique based on interleaved gradient-echo echo-planar imaging (EPI), verify in phantom, develop software tools to process and display data on a clinical scanner in near real-time, and demonstrate feasibility to monitor ultrasound thermal ablation therapy in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Temperature estimation used complex phase-difference subtraction of the EPI MRTI data to indirectly measure the temperature-dependent water proton-resonance-frequency shift. Software tools were developed to run on a clinical 1.5-T MR scanner that processed and displayed relevant temperature and thermal dosimetry data during the course of thermal ablation treatments in canine brain and prostate in vivo.

RESULTS

EPI MRTI provided multi-planar acquisitions and increased temperature sensitivity and lipid suppression. Relative to a single-plane fast gradient-echo MRTI sequence at comparable spatial and temporal resolutions in phantom, EPI MRTI demonstrated a three-fold increase in sensitivity and slice coverage per TR. In vivo monitoring of ultrasound thermal ablation therapy in canine brain and prostate demonstrated the usefulness of the temperature and thermal dose information.

CONCLUSION

Multi-planar MRTI allowed progression of thermal damage to be monitored and treatment parameters adjusted in near real-time (less than five second delay). EPI MRTI is an effective multi-planar monitoring method during ultrasound thermal ablation procedures.

Radiofrequency power deposition utilizing thermal imaging

Wavelength effects influence radiofrequency (RF) power deposition distributions and limit magnetic resonance (MR) medical applications at very high magnetic fields. The power depositions in spherical saline gel phantoms were deduced from proton resonance shift thermal maps at both 1.5 T and 3.0 T over a range of conductivities. Phase differences before and after RF heating were measured for both a quadrature head coil and a circular surface coil. A long echo time (TE) pulse sequence with a 3D phase unwrap algorithm provided increased thermal sensitivity. The measured thermal maps agreed with a model of eddy-current heating by circularly polarized oscillating RF fields in a conducting dielectric sphere. At 3.0 T, thermal maps were acquired with a <0.32 degrees C temperature rise at 4 W. Proton resonance shift thermal maps provided a measure of hot spots in very-high-field MR imaging (MRI), in which both the phase sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) were increased. The method provides a means of studying the heat distribution generated by RF coils excited by clinical pulse sequences.

MR imaging–guided breast ablative therapy

The integration of imaging and thermal therapy can provide a minimally invasive or even noninvasive alternative to breast surgery for small tumors. Ongoing trials seek to show safety and efficacy for laser, radiofrequency, microwave, cryoablation, and focused ultrasound surgery. To be successful, these therapies must achieve equivalent or even greater efficacy as surgical outcomes and must demonstrate total ablation of the dominant lesion with negative margins, while sparing normal tissue beyond the target tissue. Procedures have been validated by histopathology subsequent to resection.

Perspectives in clinical uses of high-intensity focused ultrasound

Focused ultrasound holds promise in a large number of therapeutic applications. It has long been known that high intensity focused ultrasound can kill tissue through coagulative necrosis. However, it is only in recent years that practical clinical applications are becoming possible, with the development of high power ultrasound phased arrays and noninvasive monitoring methods. These technologies, combined with more sophisticated treatment planning methods allow noninvasive focusing in areas such as the brain, that were once thought to be unreachable. Meanwhile, exciting investigations are underway in microbubble-enhanced heating which could significantly reduce treatment times. These developments have promoted an increase in the number of potential applications by providing valuable new tools for medical research. This paper provides an overview of the scientific and engineering advances that are allowing the growth in clinical focused ultrasound applications. It also discusses some of these prospective applications, including the treatment of brain disorders and targeted drug delivery.

Heat-activated Liposomal MR Contrast Agent: Initial in Vivo Results in Rabbit Liver and Kidney

PURPOSE

To evaluate by using in vivo magnetic resonance (MR) imaging the functionality of a liposomal paramagnetic contrast agent with T1 relaxivity that rapidly and markedly increases at temperatures above the gel-to-liquid crystalline phase transition temperature (T(c)) of the liposome membrane.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Liposomal gadolinium diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid bis(methylamide) was injected intravenously at a dose of 0.4 or 1.2 mL (containing 10 or 30 micromol of gadolinium, respectively) per kilogram of body weight shortly before the application of focused ultrasound in liver (seven rabbits) or kidney (three rabbits). VX2 tumors had been implanted in liver in four of the rabbits. Eighteen locations in liver (13 in normal tissue, five in tumor) and 12 locations in kidney were sonicated. MR thermometry was performed during sonications. Signal intensity enhancement was evaluated on T1-weighted images acquired after the tissue cooled, and enhanced zones were compared with isotherms at T(c) of the liposome membrane (approximately 57 degrees C) by using Bland-Altman analysis. In liver, enhanced zones also were compared with areas of histologically verified thermal damage. The threshold temperature of enhancement at T1-weighted imaging was verified by monitoring the signal intensity increase after 10 sonications at varied powers in two locations in normal liver tissue.

RESULTS

Persistent enhancement was observed on T1-weighted images at all sonicated liver locations. In liver, enhanced zones on T1-weighted images were contiguous both with 57 degrees C isotherms (25 measurements; mean difference +/- SD, 0.4 mm +/- 1.2) and with histologically verified areas of necrosis (seven measurements; mean difference +/- SD, 0.1 mm +/- 0.9). The threshold temperature of enhancement at T1-weighted imaging in normal liver was 53 degrees -57 degrees C. In kidney, enhanced zones on T1-weighted images did not match the isotherms.

CONCLUSION

The liposomal contrast agent was effective at in vivo MR thermometry in liver but not in kidney.

Accuracy of MR Temperature Measurement Based on Chemical Shift Change for Radiofrequency Ablation Using Hook-shaped Electrodes

The purpose of the current study is to evaluate the accuracy of MR thermometry for radiofrequency ablation (RFA) with hook-shaped electrodes. The objects were eight extracted bovine livers. The chemical shift change was calculated from MR images acquired with a spoiled gradient echo sequence and compared with the temperature directly measured with a thermocouple. Linear regression was established between them with a coefficient of -0.0110+/-0.0007 ppm/ degrees C and errors were calculated as -0.50+/-7.50 degrees C. MR thermometry is capable of monitoring temperature for RFA.

Triggered, navigated, multi-baseline method for proton resonance frequency temperature mapping with respiratory motion

A technique is presented for the acquisition of temperature maps in the presence of variable respiratory motion using the proton resonance frequency (PRF) shift. The technique uses respiratory triggering, diaphragm position determination with a navigator echo, and the collection of multiple baseline images to generate temperature maps. Laser ablations were performed in an ex vivo liver phantom undergoing variable simulated respiratory motion and in vivo in four porcine livers, demonstrating a reduction of artifacts in the computed temperature maps compared with conventional single baseline techniques, both uncorrected and corrected for motion.

Sliding window dual gradient echo (SW-dGRE): T1 and proton resonance frequency (PRF) calibration for temperature imaging in polyacrylamide gel

The aim of the work is to evaluate a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) thermometry sequence suitable for targeting of focused ultrasound (FUS) when used in vascular occlusion studies. A sliding window dual gradient echo (SW-dGRE) sequence was used. This sequence has the capability of monitoring both T1 relaxation and phase changes, which vary with temperature. Preliminary work involved quantification of the changes in T1 relaxation time with temperature and obtaining the PRF shift coefficient in polyacrylamide gel as it underwent an exothermic reaction during polymerization (avoiding the use of an external heat source). Temperature changes were visualized using thermal maps acquired with the sequence. For FUS guidance a thermal imaging technique is required with a temporal resolution <5 s, a spatial resolution of approximately 1 mm and a temperature resolution of approximately 5 degrees C. The sequence was optimized to improve the CNR (contrast to noise ratio) and SNR (signal to noise ratio) in the phase and magnitude images respectively. The PRF coefficient obtained for the polyacrylamide gel was -9.98 +/- 0.24 ppb degrees C(-1), whilst deltaT1 and temperature change were related by a proportionality factor, the T1 temperature coefficient, of 102.3 +/- 2.9 ms degrees C(-1). The sequence produces an image at every 1.4 s interval. In both magnitude and phase data, the in-plane resolution is +/- 1.2 mm and the temperature resolution is approximately 2 degrees C. The advantage of this sequence is that the temperature obtained from the magnitude data can be confirmed independently using the phase data and vice versa. Thus the sequence can essentially be crosschecked.

MR imaging-guided focused ultrasound surgery of uterine leiomyomas: a feasibility study

The feasibility and safety of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging-guided focused ultrasound surgery for uterine leiomyomas is reported. Sequential sonications were delivered to nine targets. Temperature-sensitive phase-difference MR imaging monitored the location of the focus and measured tissue temperature elevations, ensuring therapeutic dose. MR images and hysterectomy specimens were evaluated. Six leiomyomas received full therapeutic doses, and 98.5% of the sonications were visualized. MR thermometry was successful in all sonications and cases. Focal necrotic lesions were seen in all cases at MR, and five were pathologically confirmed. MR imaging-guided focused ultrasound causes thermocoagulation and necrosis in uterine leiomyomas and is feasible and safe, without serious consequences.

The threshold for brain damage in rabbits induced by bursts of ultrasound in the presence of an ultrasound contrast agent (Optison)

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that burst ultrasound (US) in the presence of a US contrast agent using parameters similar to those used in brain blood flow measurements causes tissue damage. The brains of 10 rabbits were sonicated in 3-8 locations with 1.5-MHz, 10- micro s bursts repeated at a frequency of 1 kHz at temporal peak acoustic pressure amplitudes ranging from 2 to 12.7 MPa. The total sonication time for each location was 20 s. Before each sonication, a bolus of US contrast agent was injected IV. Contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance (MR) images were obtained after the sonications to detect local enhancement in the brain. Whole brain histological evaluation was performed, and the sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H and E), TUNEL, and vanadium acid fuchsin (VAF) staining to evaluate tissue effects, including apoptosis and ischemia. Both the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast enhancement and histology findings indicated that brain tissue damage was induced at a pressure amplitude level of 6.3 MPa. The damage included vascular wall damage, hemorrhage and, eventually, necrosis. Mild vascular damage was observed localized in a few microscopic tissue volumes in about half of the sonicated locations at all pressure values tested (down to 2 MPa). However, these sonications did not induce any detectable tissue effects, including ischemia or apoptosis. As a conclusion, the study showed that the US exposure levels currently used for blood flow measurements in brain are below the threshold of blood-brain barrier opening or brain tissue damage. However, one should be aware that brain damage can be induced if the exposure level is increased.

Simulations of thermal tissue coagulation and their value for the planning and monitoring of laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy (LITT)

MRI information is widely used for the monitoring of thermal therapies, such as laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy (LITT). However, a detailed knowledge about the relationship between time/temperature exposure and resulting tissue thermal damage is needed to estimate the lesion extent. The aims of this work were to model the thermal response of laser-irradiated tissue and to assess the value of Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) for tumor therapy planning and monitoring. MCS yielded true 3D distributions of laser-induced temperature and thermal damage. These results were compared with 2D MR thermometry data from in vitro experiments performed on animal liver tissue over an ordinary range of laser powers (10-25 W) and irradiation times (5-25 min). Clinical reference data were available from MR-guided liver LITT procedures. MCS correctly predicted the shape of temperature and damage distributions. The quantitative agreement between simulated and measured lesion diameters was within 10% and 15% for the in vitro and in vivo cases, respectively. The simulated 53 degrees C isotherm best estimated the boundary of the final thermal damage (6% variance). This study shows that MCS of interstitial laser coagulation provides unique information that can be of use in the empirical correlation of temperature with thermal damage, and can assist greatly in thermal treatment planning and monitoring.

MRI-guided gas bubble enhanced ultrasound heating in in vivo rabbit thigh

In this study, we propose a focused ultrasound surgery protocol that induces and then uses gas bubbles at the focus to enhance the ultrasound absorption and ultimately create larger lesions in vivo. MRI and ultrasound visualization and monitoring methods for this heating method are also investigated. Larger lesions created with a carefully monitored single ultrasound exposure could greatly improve the speed of tumour coagulation with focused ultrasound. All experiments were performed under MRI (clinical, 1.5 T) guidance with one of two eight-sector, spherically curved piezoelectric transducers. The transducer, either a 1.1 or 1.7 MHz array, was driven by a multi-channel RF driving system. The transducer was mounted in an MRI-compatible manual positioning system and the rabbit was situated on top of the system. An ultrasound detector ring was fixed with the therapy transducer to monitor gas bubble activity during treatment. Focused ultrasound surgery exposures were delivered to the thighs of seven New Zealand while rabbits. The experimental, gas-bubble-enhanced heating exposures consisted of a high amplitude 300 acoustic watt, half second pulse followed by a 7 W, 14 W or 21 W continuous wave exposure for 19.5 s. The respective control sonications were 20 s exposures of 14 W, 21 W and 28 W. During the exposures, MR thermometry was obtained from the temperature dependency of the proton resonance frequency shift. MRT2-enhanced imaging was used to evaluate the resulting lesions. Specific metrics were used to evaluate the differences between the gas-bubble-enhanced exposures and their respective control sonications: temperatures with respect to time and space, lesion size and shape, and their agreement with thermal dose predictions. The bubble-enhanced exposures showed a faster temperature rise within the first 4 s and higher overall temperatures than the sonications without bubble formation. The spatial temperature maps and the thermal dose maps derived from the MRI thermometry closely correlated with the resulting lesion as examined by T2-weighted imaging. The lesions created with the gas-bubble-enhanced heating exposures were 2-3 times larger by volume, consistently more spherical in shape and closer to the transducer than the control exposures. The study demonstrates that gas bubbles can reliably be used to create significantly larger lesions in vivo. MRI thermometry techniques were successfully used to monitor the thermal effects mediated by the bubble-enhanced exposures.

Minimally invasive therapy for the treatment of breast tumours

Minimally invasive therapy has been explored as a potential means of treating breast tumours with minimal disruption to adjacent soft tissues. The purpose of this is to facilitate improved cosmesis and to offer treatment to women who are unfit for surgery. A number of treatment modalities including thermal therapies (intersitital laser photocoagulation, radiofrequency, focused ultrasound and cryotherapy), percutaneous excision and interstitial radiotherapy are being developed. The experience to date of each of these modalities is described and reviewed. Currently there are too few data to indicate the efficacy of these treatments although the preliminary data are encouraging. The need for large-scale studies examining the role of MIT in relationship to the overall management of breast cancer (including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and the management of the axilla) and outcome is discussed.

The use of quantitative temperature images to predict the optimal power for focused ultrasound surgery: in vivo verification in rabbit muscle and brain

In this study, we investigated the use of MRI-derived thermal imaging for determining the exposure parameters for focused ultrasound (FUS) surgery. Since the temperature rise induced by a FUS beam scales linearly with power, the temperature maps acquired during subthreshold sonications can be used to determine the power necessary to produce thermal tissue damage with a desired size. Thermal images acquired during multiple sonications delivered at different locations in rabbit thigh muscle and brain tissue in vivo were analyzed to test this hypothesis. First, the linearity of the induced temperature rise with the acoustic power was tested. Next, the temperature maps acquired during preliminary low power sonications were scaled up until the estimated size of the tissue damage was equal to the tissue damage size of subsequent high power sonications. A threshold thermal dose was used to estimate the onset of thermal damage. The predicted power (based on amount of scaling required to reach the target size) was then compared to the true high power value. Overall, the temperature rise varied linearly with power (slope of deltaThigh/deltaTlow vs Power(high)/Power(low) = 0.97, 0.93 for pairs of sonications at each location in brain, muscle). The predicted power matched the true high power in the brain sonications (slope = 1.04). The predicted power underestimated the true high power in the muscle sonications (slope = 0.87). This under-prediction was due to a deviation from linearity in those cases where tissue damage was detected in subsequent MR images (slope of deltaThigh/deltaTlow vs Power(high)/Power(low) = 1.02, 0.84 for no tissue damage, tissue damage). The source of this deviation was not clear from these experiments. Even with this underestimation of the power, this method will be useful because it will allow an estimate of the proper power to use during FUS surgery without exact knowledge of the tissue parameters.

Magnetic resonance imaging-guided focused ultrasound thermal therapy in experimental animal models: correlation of ablation volumes with pathology in rabbit muscle and VX2 tumors

PURPOSE

To further investigate the use of magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound therapy (MRgFUS) as a noninvasive alternative to surgery in the local control of soft-tissue tumors by ablating prescribed volumes of VX2 rabbit tumors and comparing with ablation of normal tissue volumes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Small, ellipsoidal ablations at shallow depth were created using 5- to 15-second sonication pulses at radio frequency (RF) powers of 50-125 W using a spherical, air-backed transducer operating at 1.463 MHz under MR guidance in a 1.5-T clinical scanner.

RESULTS

Excellent correlation was observed between prescribed treatment volumes, MR thermal dosimetry, post-treatment verification MRI, and histopathology. Multifocal ablations of VX2 tumors in rabbits at depths of up to 2.5 cm resulted in complete ablation of the prescribed treatment volume.

CONCLUSION

MRgFUS is an effective technique for treating tumors in vivo. Techniques developed for treatments in homogeneous tissue volumes are applicable in the more complicated tumor environment if MR temperature feedback is available to modify treatment delivery parameters.

Interstitial ultrasound heating applicator for MR-guided thermal therapy

The ability to control the shape of thermal coagulation was investigated for various interstitial heating applicators incorporating planar transducers and device rotation. Magnetic-resonance-compatible interstitial ultrasound applicators were constructed and the effects of ultrasound power, frequency, scan rate and heating time on lesion radius were studied in heating experiments in excised liver tissue. Continuous thermal lesions were generated by scanning heating applicators over a 180 angular sector. The region of thermal coagulation was restricted to the prescribed sector. Lesion radius increased with acoustic power and heating time and decreased with increasing frequency. The relationship between the temperature distribution generated by the applicator and the resulting thermal lesion was assessed with MRI. Analysis of MR temperature maps revealed that the temperature distribution could be measured accurately within 2 mm from the surface of the applicator, and the boundary of thermal coagulation was defined by a temperature of 54 +/- 12 degrees C. Calculations of temperature distributions indicated that slower scan rates can overcome the tendency of perfusion to reduce the radius of thermal lesion. This applicator design and delivery strategy make conformal interstitial heating possible.

Thermal effects of focused ultrasound energy on bone tissue

The effects of focused ultrasound (US) at therapeutic acoustic power levels were studied in vivo on the bone-muscle interface in rabbit thighs. The purpose of this study was to provide direction in establishing safety guidelines for treating tissue masses using focused US on or near bone. A positioning device was used to manipulate a focused US transducer (1.5 MHz) in a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner. This system was used to sonicate the femurs of 10 rabbits at acoustic power levels of 26, 39, 52 and 65 W for 10 s. The rabbits were euthanized either 4 h or 28 days after the sonications and the bone samples were harvested for histology examinations. In the femurs studied, acoustic power levels from 39 to 65 W resulted in soft tissue damage characterized grossly by coagulated tissue and bone damage depicted by yellow discoloration. Histologic examination of lesions from sonications from 39 to 65 W demonstrated that osteocyte damage and necrosis, characterized by pyknotic cells and empty lacunae, occurred within the ablation area extending through the bone. The follow-up MR images demonstrated an increase in the amount of damage in the femurs at 28 days posttreatment in comparison to images taken immediately after treatment. Focused US directed at the femur caused immediate significant thermal damage to bone in the form of osteocyte necrosis extending through the (approximately) 1 cm bone in this study. The results suggest that, when focused US energy is directed at or near bone-muscle interfaces, precautions should be taken to avoid thermal damage to the bone that can compromise its strength for extended periods.

Noninvasive MR imaging-guided focal opening of the blood-brain barrier in rabbits

PURPOSE

To determine if focused ultrasound beams can be used to locally open the blood-brain barrier without damage to surrounding brain tissue and if magnetic resonance (MR) imaging can be used to monitor this procedure.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The brains of 18 rabbits were sonicated (pulsed sonication) in four to six locations, with temporal peak acoustic power ranging from 0.2 to 11.5 W. Prior to each sonication, a bolus of ultrasonographic (US) contrast agent was injected into the ear vein of the rabbit. A series of fast or spoiled gradient-echo MR images were obtained during the sonications to monitor the temperature elevation and potential tissue changes. Contrast material-enhanced MR images obtained minutes after sonications and repeated 1-48 hours later were used to depict blood-brain barrier opening. Whole brain histologic evaluation was performed.

RESULTS

Opening of the blood-brain barrier was confirmed with detection of MR imaging contrast agent at the targeted locations. The lowest power levels used produced blood-brain barrier opening without damage to the surrounding neurons. Contrast enhancement correlated with the focal signal intensity changes in the magnitude fast spoiled gradient-echo MR images.

CONCLUSION

The blood-brain barrier can be consistently opened with focused ultrasound exposures in the presence of a US contrast agent. MR imaging signal intensity changes may be useful in the detection of blood-brain barrier opening during sonication.

MR monitoring of tumour thermal therapy

Thermal therapy of tumour including hyperthermia and thermal ablation by heat or cold delivery requires on line monitoring. Due to its temperature sensitivity, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) allows thermal mapping at the time of the treatment. The different techniques of MR temperature monitoring based on water proton resonance frequency (PRF), longitudinal relaxation time T1, diffusion coefficient and MR Spectroscopic Imaging (MRSI) are reviewed and debated. The PRF method appears the most widely used and the most efficient at high magnetic field in spite of important drawbacks. The T1 method is the easiest method of visualisation of qualitative temperature distribution and quantitative measurement seems possible in the tissue surrounding the tumour up to a temperature of 45-65 degrees C. Despite its high temperature sensitivity, application of the diffusion method in vivo is restricted due to its high motion sensitivity. The recent MRSI technique seems very promising provided acquisition times can be reduced. Results from the literature indicate that MR temperature monitoring in vivo can be achieved in vivo with a precision of about 3 degrees C in 13 s for a voxel of 16 mm3 (1.5 x 1.5 x 7 mm) in 1.5 T scanners.

Dynamic imaging with multiple resolutions along phase-encode and slice-select dimensions

An implementation is reported of an imaging method to obtain MUltiple Resolutions along Phase-encode and Slice-select dimensions (MURPS), which enables dynamic imaging of focal changes using a graded, multiresolution approach. MURPS allows one to trade spatial resolution in part of the volume for improved temporal resolution in dynamic imaging applications. A unique method of Hadamard slice encoding is used, enabling the varying of the phase encode and slice resolution while maintaining a constant effective TR throughout the entire 3-D volume. MURPS was implemented using a gradient-recalled echo sequence, and its utility was demonstrated for MR temperature monitoring. In this preliminary work, it has been shown that changes throughout a large volume can be effectively monitored in times that would normally only permit dynamic imaging in one or a very few slices.

MR imaging-guided focused ultrasound surgery of fibroadenomas in the breast: a feasibility study

PURPOSE

To test the feasibility of noninvasive magnetic resonance (MR) imaging-guided focused ultrasound surgery (FUS) of benign fibroadenomas in the breast.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eleven fibroadenomas in nine patients under local anesthesia were treated with MR imaging-guided FUS. Based on a T2-weighted definition of target volumes, sequential sonications were delivered to treat the entire target. Temperature-sensitive phase-difference-based MR imaging was performed during each sonication to monitor focus localization and tissue temperature changes. After the procedure, T2-weighted and contrast material-enhanced T1-weighted MR imaging were performed to evaluate immediate and long-term effects.

RESULTS

Thermal imaging sequences were improved over the treatment period, with 82% (279 of 342) of the hot spots visible in the last seven treatments. The MR imager was used to measure temperature elevation (12.8 degrees -49.9 degrees C) from these treatments. Eight of the 11 lesions treated demonstrated complete or partial lack of contrast material uptake on posttherapy T1-weighted images. Three lesions showed no marked decrease of contrast material uptake. This lack of effective treatment was most likely due to a lower acoustic power and/or patient movement that caused misregistration. No adverse effects were detected, except for one case of transient edema in the pectoralis muscle 2 days after therapy.

CONCLUSION

MR imaging-guided FUS can be performed to noninvasively coagulate benign breast fibroadenomas.

Temperature quantification using the proton frequency shift technique: In vitro and in vivo validation in an open 0.5 tesla interventional MR scanner during RF ablation

Open magnetic resonance (MR) scanners allow MR-guided targeting of tumors, as well as temperature monitoring of radio frequency (RF) ablation. The proton frequency shift (PFS) technique, an accurate and fast imaging method for temperature quantification, was used to synthesize thermal maps after RF ablation in an open 0.5 T MR system under ex vivo and in vivo conditions. Calibration experiments with 1.5% agarose gel yielded a chemical shift factor of 0.011 +/- 0.001 ppm/ degrees C (r2 = 0.96). Three gradient echo (GRE) pulse sequences were tested for thermal mapping by comparison with fiberoptic thermometer (Luxtron Model 760) readings. Temperature uncertainty decreased from high to low bandwidths (BW): +/-5.9 degrees C at BW = 15.6 kHz, +/-1.4 degrees C at BW = 3.9 kHz, and +/-0.8 degrees C at BW = 2.5 kHz. In vitro experiments (N = 9) in the paraspinal muscle yielded a chemical shift factor of 0.008 +/- 0.001 ppm/ degrees C. Temperature uncertainty was determined as +/-2.7 degrees C (BW = 3.9 kHz, TE = 19.3 msec). The same experiments carried out in the paraspinal muscle (N = 9) of a fully anesthetized pig resulted in a temperature uncertainty of +/-4.3 degrees C (BW = 3.9 kHz, TE = 19.3 msec), which is higher than it is in vitro conditions (P < 0.15). Quantitative temperature monitoring of RF ablation is feasible in a 0.5 T open-configured MR scanner under ex vivo and in vivo conditions using the PFS technique.