Plant hormones and nodulation: what's the connection?

Expressed sequence tags from a root-hair-enriched medicago truncatula cDNA library

The root hair is a specialized cell type involved in water and nutrient uptake in plants. In legumes the root hair is also the primary site of recognition and infection by symbiotic nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium bacteria. We have studied the root hairs of Medicago truncatula, which is emerging as an increasingly important model legume for studies of symbiotic nodulation. However, only 27 genes from M. truncatula were represented in GenBank/EMBL as of October, 1997. We report here the construction of a root-hair-enriched cDNA library and single-pass sequencing of randomly selected clones. Expressed sequence tags (899 total, 603 of which have homology to known genes) were generated and made available on the Internet. We believe that the database and the associated DNA materials will provide a useful resource to the community of scientists studying the biology of roots, root tips, root hairs, and nodulation.

Studying early nodulin gene ENOD40 expression and induction by nodulation factor and cytokinin in transgenic alfalfa

ENOD40, an early nodulin gene, is expressed following inoculation with Rhizobium meliloti or by adding R. meliloti-produced nodulation (Nod) factors or the plant hormone cytokinin to uninoculated roots. We isolated two MsENOD40 clones, designated MsENOD40-1 and MsENOD40-2, with distinct promoters from an alfalfa (Medicago sativa cv Chief) genomic library. The promoters were fused to the reporter gene uidA (gus), and the constructs were introduced into alfalfa. We observed that the MsENOD40-1 construct was expressed almost exclusively under symbiotic conditions. The MsENOD40-2 construct was transcribed under both symbiotic and nonsymbiotic conditions and in nonnodular and nodular tissues. Both MsENOD40 promoter-gus constructs were similarly expressed as nodules developed, and both were expressed in roots treated with 6-benzylaminopurine or purified Nod factor. However, no blue color was detected in nodule-like structures induced by the auxin transport inhibitor N-1-(naphthyl)phthalamic acid on roots of plants containing the MsENOD40-1 promoter construct, whereas pseudonodules from plants containing the MsENOD40-2 promoter construct stained blue. A 616-bp region at the distal 5' end of the promoter is important for proper spatial expression of MsENOD40 in nodules and also for Nod-factor and cytokinin-induced expression.

Influence of indoleacetic-acid-producing Bacillus isolates on the nodulation of Phaseolus vulgaris by Rhizobium etli under gnotobiotic conditions

Twenty-two Bacillus spp. isolates from the rhizosphere of Phaseolus vulgaris 'Contender' were identified using Biolog™, gas chromatographic fatty acid methyl ester, and 23S rDNA analyses. Some of the Bacillus isolates produced significant amounts of the phytohormone indoleacetic acid (IAA) when grown in a liquid culture medium supplemented with 100 μg L-tryptophan/L; less IAA was produced in culture medium not supplemented with L-tryptophan. Thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography – mass spectrometry, and the avena coleoptile bioassay were used to identify and quantify IAA produced by Bacillus isolates. Significant differences were observed in the amounts of IAA produced by different strains of Bacillus, with amounts varying from 0.40 to 4.88 μg/mL. α-Methyltryptophan-resistant mutants of Bacillus exhibited altered IAA production and excreted tryptophan into the growing medium. The IAA-producing Bacillus isolates promoted root growth and (or) nodulation when coinoculated with Rhizobium etli (TAL 182) on Phaseolus vulgaris 'Contender' under gnotobiotic conditions in growth chambers. Coinoculation resulted in increased nodule number, nodule fresh weight, nitrogenase activity, leghemoglobin content, and total soluble protein content in the root nodules of Phaseolus vulgaris. In contrast, coinoculation with α-methyltryptophan mutants resulted in decreased nodulation, indicating that Bacillus isolates have a direct effect on either the Rhizobium or the plant and the effect may not be singularly attributed to their ability to produce IAA in vitro.Key words: Bacillus, indoleacetic acid production, nodulation enhancement.

Modulation of development, growth dynamics, wall crystallinity, and infection sites in white clover root hairs by membrane chitolipooligosaccharides from Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii

We used bright-field, time-lapse video, cross-polarized, phase-contrast, and fluorescence microscopies to examine the influence of isolated chitolipooligosaccharides (CLOSs) from wild-type Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii on development of white clover root hairs, and the role of these bioactive glycolipids in primary host infection. CLOS action caused a threefold increase in the differentiation of root epidermal cells into root hairs. At maturity, root hairs were significantly longer because of an extended period of active elongation without a change in the elongation rate itself. Time-series image analysis showed that the morphological basis of CLOS-induced root hair deformation is a redirection of tip growth displaced from the medial axis as previously predicted. Further studies showed several newly described infection-related root hair responses to CLOSs, including the localized disruption of the normal crystallinity in cell wall architecture and the induction of new infection sites. The application of CLOS also enabled a NodC- mutant of R. leguminosarum bv. trifolii to progress further in the infection process by inducing bright refractile spot modifications of the deformed root hair walls. However, CLOSs did not rescue the ability of the NodC- mutant to induce marked curlings or infection threads within root hairs. These results indicate that CLOS Nod factors elicit several host responses that modulate the growth dynamics and symbiont infectibility of white clover root hairs but that CLOSs alone are not sufficient to permit successful entry of the bacteria into root hairs during primary host infection in the Rhizobium-clover symbiosis.

Phaseolus ENOD40 is involved in symbiotic and non-symbiotic organogenetic processes: expression during nodule and lateral root development

ENOD40 is an early nodulin gene, recently isolated from legume species forming nodules either after Rhizobium infection or spontaneously. ENOD40 cDNAs from Phaseolus plants were isolated and nucleotide sequence determination revealed 85% and 88.5% homology with the reported soybean cDNA clones. The putative polypeptide deduced coincides with the soybean one but a stop codon, almost in the middle of the respective ORF, renders it much shorter. This polypeptide was overexpressed as a fusion protein in Escherichia coli. Although the spatial expression pattern of the gene in the root pericycle and nodule primordium at early stages of development as well as in the pericycle of the vascular bundles and uninfected cells in mature nodules is comparable to the gene's expression pattern in soybean, differences in developmental regulation are evident. We have shown that ENOD40 transcripts are also detected at very early stages of lateral root development, in the dividing pericycle cells of the root stele that give rise to the lateral root primordia. The presence of Rhizobium causes an enhancement of the gene's expression and also induction of the gene in the vascular tissues of developed lateral roots. Interestingly, a discrimination on the gene's expression level in adventious and acropetal incipient lateral root primordia, emerging in infected and uninfected roots, is observed. This indicates that the gene's product may be involved in the hormonal status of the plant and that ENOD40 may be used as a molecular marker in lateral root initiation.