Impact of food processing and detoxification treatments on mycotoxin contamination

Activated natural zeolites for beer filtration: A pilot scale approach

A clinoptilolite-rich natural zeolite was tested as a substitute for kieselguhr as a filtering material to eliminate ingredients that cause beer haze formation. Two-grain sizes of micronized natural zeolite were thermally activated to 400 °C, to enhance its adsorption performance and remove the impurities adsorbed in the microporous system of zeolites, followed by their physicochemical characterization. The activated zeolites mixed with four commercial filter aids in different ratios were used for beer filtration at the pilot scale. Most of the physicochemical and sensory characteristics of beers filtered with commercial filter aids and with zeolites were similar. Using zeolite in filtering mixtures significantly reduces the number of microorganisms present in the filtered beer, which can eliminate the necessity of beer sterilization after filtration. The results evidenced that activated natural zeolites, which are cheap materials, are promising candidates as filter aids and can replace kieselguhr without producing any degradation of the beer filtration process.

Recent advancements on use of essential oils as preservatives against fungi and mycotoxins spoiling food grains

Spoilage of grains by mycotoxigenic fungi poses a great threat to food security and human health. Conventionally used chemical agents to prevent grain fungi contamination cause increasingly significant problems such as microbial resistance, residual toxicity and environmental unfriendliness. In recent years, plant essential oils (EOs) have become a hot spot in the research of control of grain fungi and mycotoxins, due to their extensive sources, non-toxicity, environmental friendliness and good antifungal efficiency. The current review aims to provide an overview of the prevention of fungi and mycotoxins in grain through EOs. The antifungal and toxin inhibition efficiency of different EOs and their effective components are investigated. The inhibition mechanism of EOs on fungi and mycotoxins in grains is introduced. The influence of EOs treatment on the change of grain quality is also discussed. In addition, the formulations and techniques used to overcome the disadvantages of EOs application are introduced. The results of recent studies have confirmed that EOs provide great potential for controlling common fungi and mycotoxins in grains, and enhancing quantity and quality safety of grains.

Aluminosilicates as a Double-Edged Sword: Adsorption of Aflatoxin B1 and Sequestration of Essential Trace Minerals in an In Vitro Gastrointestinal Poultry Model

Aflatoxins can cause intoxication and poisoning in animals and humans. Among these molecules, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most dangerous because of its carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. To mitigate these effects, clay adsorbents are commonly included in the diet of animals to adsorb the carcinogens and prevent their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. In this study, four clays, three smectites (C-1, C-2, and C-3), and one zeolite (C-4), were compared as adsorbents of AFB1 and trace inorganic nutrients using an in vitro gastrointestinal model for poultry. Characterization of the clays using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed characteristic bands of smectites in C-1, C-2, and C-3 (stretching vibrations of Si-O, Al-O-Si, and Si-O-Si). The C-4 presented bands related to the bending vibration of structural units (Si-O-Si and Al-O-Si). X-ray diffraction analysis showed that C-1 is a montmorillonite, C-2 is a beidellite, C-3 is a beidellite-Ca-montmorillonite, and C-4 is a clinoptilolite. The elemental compositions of the clays showed alumina, silica, iron, calcium, and sodium contents. The cation exchange capacity was higher in C-3 clay (60.2 cmol(+)/kg) in contrast with the other clays. The AFB1 adsorption of C-1 was the highest (98%; p ˂ 0.001), followed by C-2 (94%). However, all the clays also sequestered trace inorganic nutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Se). Both smectites, montmorillonite and beidellite, were the most suitable for use as adsorbents of AFB1.

Determination of Aflatoxins in Milk by PS-MWCNT/OH Composite Nanofibers Solid-Phase Extraction Coupled with HPLC-FLD

In this work, a sensitive analytical method based on packed-nanofiber solid-phase extraction (PFSPE), after derivatization with trichloroacetic acid and high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD), has been established for the determination of aflatoxins (AFs) in milk. Polystyrene polymeric multi-walled carbon nanotube (PS-MWCNT/OH) composite nanofibers were fabricated by electrospinning and used to prepare homemade extraction columns. The extraction efficiency of the HPLC-FLD analysis method was sufficiently investigated and validated. After the implementation of optimal conditions, all of the analytes were separated efficiently and the components of the milk matrix did not disturb the determination. The obtained linear ranges of the calibration curves were 0.2-20 ng/mL for AFTB1 and AFTG2, 0.1-10 ng/mL for AFTB2, and 0.4-40 ng/mL for AFTG1. The recoveries ranged between 80.22% and 96.21%. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) for the intra-day and inter-day results ranged from 2.81-6.43% to 3.42-7.75%, respectively. Generally, 11 mg of sorbent and 200 μL of elution solvent were used to directly extract all of the AFs from the milk matrix. Reported herein is the first utilization of PS-MWCNT/OH-PFSPE HPLC-FLD to simultaneously analyze the occurrence of aflatoxins in milk.

Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Products and Their Impacts on the Health of Humans, Livestock Animals and Pets

Cereal grains are the most important food staples for human beings and livestock animals. They can be processed into various types of food and feed products such as bread, pasta, breakfast cereals, cake, snacks, beer, complete feed, and pet foods. However, cereal grains are vulnerable to the contamination of soil microorganisms, particularly molds. The toxigenic fungi/molds not only cause quality deterioration and grain loss, but also produce toxic secondary metabolites, mycotoxins, which can cause acute toxicity, death, and chronic diseases such as cancer, immunity suppression, growth impairment, and neural tube defects in humans, livestock animals and pets. To protect human beings and animals from these health risks, many countries have established/adopted regulations to limit exposure to mycotoxins. The purpose of this review is to update the evidence regarding the occurrence and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in cereal grains and cereal-derived food and feed products and their health impacts on human beings, livestock animals and pets. The effort for safe food and feed supplies including prevention technologies, detoxification technologies/methods and up-to-date regulation limits of frequently detected mycotoxins in cereal grains for food and feed in major cereal-producing countries are also provided. Some important areas worthy of further investigation are proposed.

Mycotoxins and consumers' awareness: Recent progress and future challenges

While food shortages have become an important challenge, providing safe food resources is a point of interest on a global scale. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are formed through various fungi species. They are mainly spread through diets such as food or beverages. About one quarter of the world's food is spoiled with mycotoxins. As this problem is not resolved, it represents a significant threat to global food security. Besides the current concerns regarding the contamination of food items by these metabolites, the lack of knowledge by consumers and their possible growth and toxin production attracted considerable attention. While globalization provides a favorite condition for some countries, food security still is challenging for most countries. There are various approaches to reducing the mycotoxigenic fungi growth and formation of mycotoxins in food, include as physical, chemical, and biological processes. The current article will focus on collecting data regarding consumers' awareness of mycotoxins. Furthermore, a critical overview and comparison among different preventative approaches to reduce risk by consumers will be discussed. Finally, the current effect of mycotoxins on global trade, besides future challenges faced by mycotoxin contamination on food security, will be discussed briefly.

Auricularia auricular Adsorbs Aflatoxin B1 and Ameliorates Aflatoxin B1-Induced Liver Damage in Sprague Dawley Rats

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), as a class I carcinogen, poses a substantial health risk to individuals. Contamination of food sources, particularly grains and nuts, with Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) contributes to the prevalence of AFB1. The impact of global warming has spurred research into the development of AFB1 prevention technologies. While edible fungi have shown potential in detoxifying AFB1, there is a scarcity of literature on the application of Auricularia auricular (A. auricular) in this context. This study aimed to investigate the ability and underlying mechanism of A. auricular mycelia to adsorb aflatoxin B1, as well as evaluate its protective effects on the AFB1-induced liver damage in SD rats. Additionally, the effects of temperature, time, pH, and reaction ratio on the adsorption rate were examined. Combining thermodynamic and kinetic data, the adsorption process was characterized as a complex mechanism primarily driven by chemical adsorption. In SD rats, the A. auricular mycelia exhibited alleviation of AFB1-induced liver damage. The protective effects on the liver attributed to A. auricular mycelia may involve a reduction in AFB1 adsorption in the intestine, mitigation of oxidative stress, and augmentation of second-phase detoxification enzyme activity. The adsorption method for AFB1 not only ensures safety and non-toxicity, but also represents a dietary regulation strategy for achieving effective defense against AFB1.

Surveillance of ochratoxin A in cocoa beans from cocoa-growing regions of Ghana

Cocoa is one of the agricultural commodities which is highly susceptible to mycotoxin contamination. During two crop/harvest seasons, the occurrence and distribution of ochratoxin A (OTA) in viable commercial cocoa beans were investigated. The cocoa bean samples were collected randomly from farmers across cocoa-growing regions of Ghana. OTA concentrations in the samples were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods following purification on immunoaffinity solid phase column. The result showed that 21.7% of all samples analyzed were contaminated with OTA at concentrations ranging from 0.01 μg/kg to 12.36 μg/kg. The Western South region had the highest occurrence of OTA-positive samples at 32.5%, followed by the Western North region at 28.75%, the Eastern and Volta regions at 25% each, Brong Ahafo (16.25%), Central (15%) and the Ashanti region at 11.25%. However, 0.9% and 3.5% of the total OTA-positive samples exceeded the OTA maximum limits of 10 μg/kg for cocoa beans and 3 μg/kg for cocoa powder, set by the Brazilian National Health Surveillance Agency and the European Commission, respectively. During the Main and Light crop seasons, the highest concentrations of OTA were detected in the Western North region, reaching up to 12.36 μg/kg and 3.45 μg/kg, respectively. OTA concentrations between the cocoa-growing regions in the Main crop season were not significantly different (p > 0.05), however, the Light crop season indicated a significant difference (p < 0.05). There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the two crop seasons. The need for regular monitoring and careful adherence to agronomic strategies such as good agricultural practices (GAPs), recommended code of practices (COPs) and good manufacturing practices (GMPs) for the prevention and reduction of OTA throughout the cocoa value chain cannot be overemphasized.

Recent advances in the combinations of plant-sourced natural products for the prevention of mycotoxin contamination in food

Mycotoxins, secondary metabolites produced by mycotoxigenic fungi, are a major problem affecting food safety and security, because of their adverse health effects, their socio-economic impact and the difficulty of degradation or removal by conventional food processing methods. Plant-sourced natural products are a novel and effective control method for fungal infestation and mycotoxin production, with the advantages of biodegradability and acceptability for food use. However, development of resistance, low and inconsistent efficacy, and a limited range of antifungal activities hinder the effective application of single plant natural products for controlling mycotoxin contamination. To overcome these limitations, combinations of plant natural products have been tested extensively and found to increase efficacy, often synergistically. However, this extensive and promising research area has seen little development of practical applications. This review aims to provide up-to-date information on the antifungal, anti-mycotoxigenic and synergistic effects of combinations of plant natural products, as well as their mechanisms of action, to provide a reference source for future research and encourage application development.

Relevance of Zearalenone and its modified forms in bakery products

Zearalenone is a frequently occurring and well-known mycotoxin developed in cereals before and during the harvest period by Fusarium spp. mainly in maize and wheat. In addition to the main form, various modified forms (phase I and II metabolites) were detected, in some cases in high amounts. These modified forms can be harmful for human health due to their different toxicity, which can be much higher compared to the parent toxin. In addition, the parent toxin can be cleaved from the phase I and II metabolites during digestion. A risk of correlated and additive adverse effects of the metabolites of ZEN phase I and II in humans and animals is evident. ZEN is considered in many studies on its occurrence in grain-based foods and some studies are dedicated to the behavior of ZEN during food processing. This is not the case for the ZEN phase I and II metabolites, which are only included in a few occurrence reports. Their effects during food processing is also only sporadically addressed in studies to date. In addition to the massive lack of data on the occurrence and behavior of ZEN modified forms, there is also a lack of comprehensive clarification of the toxicity of the numerous different ZEN metabolites detected to date. Finally, studies on the fate during digestion of the relevant ZEN metabolites will be important in the future to further clarify their relevance in processed foods such as bakery products.

Novel insights into versatile nanomaterials integrated bioreceptors toward zearalenone ultrasensitive discrimination

Detrimental contamination of zearalenone (ZEN) in crops and foodstuffs has drawn intensive public attention since it poses an ongoing threat to global food security and human health. Highly sensitive and rapid response ZEN trace analysis suitable for complex matrices at different processing stages is an indispensable part of food production. Conventional detection methods for ZEN encounter many deficiencies and demerits such as sophisticated equipment and heavy labor intensity. Alternatively, the nanomaterial-based biosensors featured with high sensitivity, portability, and miniaturization are springing up and emerging as superb substitutes to monitor ZEN in recent years. Herein, we predominantly devoted to overview the progress in the fabrication strategies and applications of various nanomaterial-based biosensors, highlighting rationales on sensing mechanisms, response types, and practical analytical performance. Synchronously, the versatile nanomaterials integrating with diverse recognition elements for augmenting sensing capabilities are emphasized. Finally, critical challenges and perspectives to expedite ZEN detection are outlooked.

Natural mycotoxin contamination in dog food: A review on toxicity and detoxification methods

Nowadays, the companion animals (dogs or other pets) are considered as members of the family and have established strong emotional relationships with their owners. Dogs are long lived compared to food animals, so safety, adequacy, and efficacy of dog food is of great importance for their health. Cereals, cereal by-products as well as feedstuffs of plant origin are commonly employed food resources in dry food, yet are potential ingredients for mycotoxins contamination, so dogs are theoretically more vulnerable to exposure when consumed daily. Aflatoxins (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FUM), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEA) are the most frequent mycotoxins that might present in dog food and cause toxicity on the growth and metabolism of dogs. An understanding of toxicological effects and detoxification methods (physical, chemical, or biological approaches) of mycotoxins will help to improve commercial ped food quality, reduce harm and minimize exposure to dogs. Herein, we outline a description of mycotoxins detected in dog food, toxicity and clinical findings in dogs, as well as methods applied in mycotoxins detoxification. This review aims to provide a reference for future studies involved in the evaluation of the risk, preventative strategies, and clear criteria of mycotoxins for minimizing exposure, reducing harm, and preventing mycotoxicosis in dog.

A review of curcumin in food preservation: Delivery system and photosensitization

As a natural polyphenol, curcumin has been used as an alternative to synthetic preservatives in food preservation. Different from previous reviews that mainly focus on the pH-responsive discoloration of curcumin to detect changes in food quality in real time, this paper focuses on the perspective of the delivery system and photosensitization of curcumin for food preservation. The delivery system is an effective means to overcome the challenges of curcumin like instability, hydrophobicity, and low bioavailability. Curcumin as a photosensitizer can effectively sterilize to preserve food. The practical fresh-keeping effects of the delivery system and photosensitization of curcumin on foods (fruits/vegetables, animal-derived food, and grain) were summarized comprehensively, including shelf-life extension, maintenance of physicochemical properties, nutritional quality, and sensory. Future research should focus on the development of novel curcumin-loaded materials used for food preservation, and most importantly, the biosafety and accumulation toxicity associated with these materials should be explored.

Mycotoxins on edible insects: Should we be worried?

Edible insects are a solid alternative to meet the growing demand for animal protein. However, there are doubts regarding the safety of insect consumption. Mycotoxins are substances of concern for food safety, as they may cause harmful effects on the human organism and accumulate in the tissues of some animals. This study focuses on the characteristics of the main mycotoxins, the mitigation of human consumption of contaminated insects, and the effects of mycotoxins on insect metabolism. To date, studies reported the interaction of the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1, and T-2, isolated or combined, in three insect species from Coleoptera and one from Diptera order. The use of rearing substrates with low mycotoxin contamination did not reduce the survival and development of insects. Fasting practices and replacing contaminated substrate with a decontaminated one decreased the concentration of mycotoxins in insects. There is no evidence that mycotoxins accumulate in the tissues of the insects' larvae. Coleoptera species showed high excretion capacity, while Hermetia illucens had a lower excretion capacity of ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol. Thus, a substrate with low mycotoxin contamination could be used for raising edible insects, particularly from the Coleoptera order.

The association of food ingredients in breakfast cereal products and fumonisins production: risks identification and predictions

Breakfast processed products are remarkably at risk of fungal contamination. This research surveyed the fumonisins concentration in different breakfast products and carried out in vitro experiments measuring fumonisins content in different substrates inoculated with Fusarium verticillioides. The pipeline started with the identification of combinations of ingredients for 58 breakfast products. Twenty-three core ingredients, seven nutritional components and production types were analyzed using a Pearson correlation, k-means clustering, and principal component analysis to show that no single factor is responsible for high fumonisins detection in processed cereals products. Consequently, decision tree regression was used as a means of determining and visualizing complex logical interactions between the same factors. We clustered the association of ingredients in low, medium, and high risk of fumonisin detection. The analysis showed that high fumonisins concentration is associated with those products that have high maize concentrations coupled especially with high sodium or rice. In an in vitro experiment, different media were prepared by mixing the ingredients in the proportion found in the first survey and by measuring fumonisins production by Fusarium verticillioides. Results showed that (1) fumonisins production by F. verticillioides is boosted by the synergistic effect of maize and highly ready carbohydrate content such as white flour; (2) a combination of maize > 26% (w/w), rice > 2.5% (w/w), and NaCl > 2.2% (w/w) led to high fumonisins production, while mono-ingredient products were more protective against fumonisins production. The observations in the in vitro experiments appeared to align with the decision tree model that an increase in ingredient complexity can lead to fumonisins production by Fusarium. However, more research is urgently needed to develop the area of predictive mycology based on the association of processing, ingredients, fungal development, and mycotoxins production.

Hazard characterisation for significant mycotoxins in food

This review updates the current status of activities related to hazard characterisation for mycotoxins, with special reference to regulatory work accomplished within the European Union. Because the relevant information on these topics is widely scattered in the scientific literature, this review intends to provide a condensed overview on the most pertinent aspects. Human health risk assessment is a procedure to estimate the nature and potential for harmful effects of mycotoxins on human health due to exposure to them via contaminated food. This assessment involves hazard identification, hazard characterisation, exposure assessment, and risk characterisation. Mycotoxins covered in this review are aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, cyclopiazonic acid, citrinin, trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2, and HT-2 toxins), fumonisins, zearalenone, patulin, and ergot alkaloids. For mycotoxins with clear genotoxic/carcinogenic properties, the focus is on the margin of exposure approach. One of its goals is to document predictive characterisation of the human hazard, based on studies in animals using conditions of low exposure. For the other, non-genotoxic toxins, individual 'no adverse effect levels' have been established, but structural analogues or modified forms may still complicate assessment. During the process of hazard characterisation, each identified effect is assessed for human relevance. The estimation of a 'safe dose' is the hazard characterisation endpoint. The final aim of all of these activities is to establish a system, which is able to minimise and control the risk for the consumer from mycotoxins in food. Ongoing research on mycotoxins constantly comes up with new findings, which may have to be implemented into this system.

Aflatoxin B1 Detoxification Potentials of Garlic, Ginger, Cardamom, Black Cumin, and Sautéing in Ground Spice Mix Red Pepper Products

The uses of natural plant origin bioactive compounds are emerging as a promising strategy to detoxify aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). This study aimed to explore the potential of cooking, phytochemicals content, and antioxidant activities derived from garlic, ginger, cardamom, and black cumin to detoxify AFB1 on spice mix red pepper powder (berbere) and sauté. The effectiveness of the samples was analyzed for AFB1 detoxification potential through standard methods for the examination of food and food additives. These major spices showed an AFB1 level below the detection limit. After cooking in hot water for 7 min at 85 ℃, the experimental and commercial spice mix red pepper showed the maximum AFB1 detoxification (62.13% and 65.95%, respectively). Thus, mixing major spices to produce a spice mix red pepper powder had a positive effect on AFB1 detoxification in raw and cooked spice mix red pepper samples. Total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, ferric ion reducing antioxidant power, and ferrous ion chelating activity revealed good positive correlation with AFB1 detoxification at p < 0.05. The findings of this study could contribute to mitigation plans of AFB1 in spice-processing enterprises. Further study is required on the mechanism of AFB1 detoxification and safety of the detoxified products.

Mycotoxins Exposure of Lactating Women and Its Relationship with Dietary and Pre/Post-Harvest Practices in Rural Ethiopia

Mycotoxins can be transferred to breast milk during lactation. Hence, the presence of multiple mycotoxins (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1, alpha and beta zearalanol, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins B1, B2, B3, and hydrolyzed B1, nivalenol, ochratoxin A, ochratoxin alpha, and zearalenone) in breast milk samples was assessed in our study. Furthermore, the relationship between total fumonisins and pre/post-harvest and the women's dietary practices was examined. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used to analyze the 16 mycotoxins. An adjusted censored regression model was fitted to identify predictors of mycotoxins, i.e., total fumonisins. We detected only fumonisin B2 (15% of the samples) and fumonisin B3 (9% of the samples) while fumonisin B1 and nivalenol were detected only in a single breast milk sample. No association between total fumonisins and pre/post-harvest and dietary practices was found (p < 0.05). The overall exposure to mycotoxins was low in the studied women, although fumonisins contamination was not negligible. Moreover, the recorded total fumonisins was not associated with any of the pre/post-harvest and dietary practices. Therefore, to better identify predictors of fumonisin contamination in breast milk, longitudinal studies with food samples in addition to breast milk samples and with larger sample sizes are needed for the future.

Toxicogenic fungal profile, Ochratoxin A exposure and cancer risk characterization through maize (Zea mays) consumed by different age populations in the Volta region of Ghana

Maize (Zea mays) is an important staple food crop for the majority of Ghanaians. Maize is mostly contaminated by fungal species and particularly mycotoxins. This work aimed to identify and quantify the incidence of fungal infection and exposure to Ochratoxin A (OTA) as well as the health risk characterization in different age populations due to maize consumption in the Volta region. Maize samples were plated on Dichloran Rose Bengal Chloramphenicol (DRBC) agar, and Oxytetracycline Glucose Yeast Extract (OGYE) agar. All media were prepared in accordance with the manufacturers' instructions. The plates were incubated at 28 ± 2 °C for 5-7 days. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography connected to a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) was used to analyze the ochratoxin A (OTA) levels in maize. Cancer risk assessments were also conducted using models prescribed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Additives (JECFA). The maize samples collected from the Volta region contained fungal population between the range of 3.08-4.58 log10 CFU/g. Eight (8) genera were recorded belonging to Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Penicillium, Fusarium, Saccharomyces, Mucor, Rhodotorula and Rhizopus. The species diversity includes A. flavus, A. niger, T. harzianum, P. verrucosum, F. oxysporum, Yeast, F. verticillioides, Rhodotorulla sp, A. fumigatus, R. stolonifer, M. racemosus species. Additionally, the ochratoxins level contained in the samples were very noteworthy and ranged from 1.22 to 28.17 μg/kg. Cancer risk assessments of OTA produced outcomes also ranged between 2.15 and 524.54 ng/kg bw/day, 0.03-8.31, 0.0323, and 0.07-16.94 for cases/100,000 person/yr for Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Margin of Exposure (MOE), Average Potency, and Cancer Risks respectively for all age categories investigated. There was very high mycoflora load on the maize sampled from the Volta region, likewise the range of mycotoxins present in the maize grains, suggesting the potential to pose some adverse health effects with the populace of the Volta region.

Effect of Gliding Arc Plasma Jet on the Mycobiota and Deoxynivalenol Levels in Naturally Contaminated Barley Grains

Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium meridionale are primary contaminants of barley, capable of producing several mycotoxins, mainly type B trichothecenes and zearalenone. Cold plasma decontamination has been gaining prominence, seeking to control the fungal and mycotoxin contamination of food and feed and to improve product quality. To reach this objective, the present study was divided into two parts. In the first part, F. meridionale and F. graminearum strains were exposed to gliding arc plasma jet (GAPJ). Cell viability tests showed the inactivation of F. meridionale after 15-min treatment, whereas F. graminearum showed to be resistant. In the second part, barley grains were treated by GAPJ for 10, 20, and 30 min, demonstrating a reduction of about 2 log CFU/g of the barley's mycobiota, composed of yeasts, strains belonging to the F. graminearum species complex, Alternaria, and Aspergillus. A decrease in DON levels (up to 89%) was observed after exposure for 20 min. However, an increase in the toxin Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (D3G) was observed in barley grains, indicating a conversion of DON to D3G.

Destruction of Mycotoxins in Poultry Waste under Anaerobic Conditions within Methanogenesis Catalyzed by Artificial Microbial Consortia

To reduce the toxicity of modern feeds polluted by mycotoxins, various sorbents are added to them when feeding animals. A part of the mycotoxins is excreted from the body of animals with these sorbents and remains in the manure. As a result, bulk animal wastes containing mixtures of mycotoxins are formed. It is known that it is partially possible to decrease the initial concentration of mycotoxins in the process of anaerobic digestion (AD) of contaminated methanogenic substrates. The aim of this review was to analyze the recent results in destruction of mycotoxins under the action of enzymes present in cells of anaerobic consortia catalyzing methanogenesis of wastes. The possible improvement of the functioning of the anaerobic artificial consortia during detoxification of mycotoxins in the bird droppings is discussed. Particular attention was paid to the possibility of effective functioning of microbial enzymes that catalyze the detoxification of mycotoxins, both at the stage of preparation of poultry manure for methanogenesis and directly in the anaerobic process itself. The sorbents with mycotoxins which appeared in the poultry wastes composed one of the topics of interest in this review. The preliminary alkaline treatment of poultry excreta before processing in AD was considered from the standpoint of effectively reducing the concentrations of mycotoxins in the waste.

Alphatoxin Nanopore Detection of Aflatoxin, Ochratoxin and Fumonisin in Aqueous Solution

Mycotoxins are toxic and carcinogenic metabolites produced by groups of filamentous fungi that colonize food crops. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are among the most relevant agricultural mycotoxins, as they can induce various toxic processes in humans and animals. To detect AFB1, OTA and FB1 in the most varied matrices, chromatographic and immunological methods are primarily used; however, these techniques are time-consuming and expensive. In this study, we demonstrate that unitary alphatoxin nanopore can be used to detect and differentiate these mycotoxins in aqueous solution. The presence of AFB1, OTA or FB1 inside the nanopore induces reversible blockage of the ionic current flowing through the nanopore, with distinct characteristics of blockage that are unique to each of the three toxins. The process of discrimination is based on the residual current ratio calculation and analysis of the residence time of each mycotoxin inside the unitary nanopore. Using a single alphatoxin nanopore, the mycotoxins could be detected at the nanomolar level, indicating that alphatoxin nanopore is a promising molecular tool for discriminatory analysis of mycotoxins in aqueous solution.

Molecular Docking and In Vitro Studies of Ochratoxin A (OTA) Biodetoxification Testing Three Endopeptidases

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is considered one of the main mycotoxins responsible for health problems and considerable economic losses in the feed industry. The aim was to study OTA's detoxifying potential of commercial protease enzymes: (i) Ananas comosus bromelain cysteine-protease, (ii) bovine trypsin serine-protease and (iii) Bacillus subtilis neutral metalloendopeptidase. In silico studies were performed with reference ligands and T-2 toxin as control, and in vitro experiments. In silico study results showed that tested toxins interacted near the catalytic triad, similar to how the reference ligands behave in all tested proteases. Likewise, based on the proximity of the amino acids in the most stable poses, the chemical reaction mechanisms for the transformation of OTA were proposed. In vitro experiments showed that while bromelain reduced OTA's concentration in 7.64% at pH 4.6; trypsin at 10.69% and the neutral metalloendopeptidase in 8.2%, 14.44%, 45.26% at pH 4.6, 5 and 7, respectively (p < 0.05). The less harmful α-ochratoxin was confirmed with trypsin and the metalloendopeptidase. This study is the first attempt to demonstrate that: (i) bromelain and trypsin can hydrolyse OTA in acidic pH conditions with low efficiency and (ii) the metalloendopeptidase was an effective OTA bio-detoxifier. This study confirmed α-ochratoxin as a final product of the enzymatic reactions in real-time practical information on OTA degradation rate, since in vitro experiments simulated the time that food spends in poultry intestines, as well as their natural pH and temperature conditions.

Diversity of Fusarium Species and Their Mycotoxins in Cereal Crops from the Asian Territory of Russia

Up-to-date information on the occurrence of Fusarium fungi and their mycotoxins in the grain of wheat, barley and oats grown in the Urals and West Siberia in 2018‒2019 is presented. Mycological analysis of grain revealed at least 16 species of Fusarium fungi. The F. sporotrichioides, F. avenaceum, F. poae, and F. anguioides were predominant, and the proportions of these species among all Fusarium fungi found in the grain were 31, 20, 19, and 13%, respectively. Fusarium graminearum and its mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) are often occurred in grain mycobiota of cereal crops on the territory of both the Urals and West Siberia. New records of fungal species that are rare in the Asian territory of Russia were detected: F. langsethiae and F. sibiricum, which are mainly producers of type A trichothecene mycotoxins, were found in the Kurgan and Kemerovo regions, respectively. In addition, F. globosum that is able to produce fumonisins was detected in Altai Krai and Omsk region. The diversity of Fusarium species was higher in wheat and barley grain samples than in oats. The HPLC-MS/MS method was used to analyse the content of 19 mycotoxins produced by Fusarium fungi. The highest diversity of mycotoxins was found in wheat grain (maximum 12), compared with oats (9) and barley (8). The T-2 and HT-2 toxins, DON, nivalenol, moniliformin (MON) and beauvericin (BEA) occurred more often in the grain samples, compared with other mycotoxins, but their amounts varied significantly, depending on the weather conditions in sampling year and the plant species. The average content of DON (maximum amount was 375 µg/kg) in wheat grain was 5 times higher than its average content in barley grain, and this mycotoxin was not detected in oat grain. The contamination with T-2 and HT-toxins (maximum amounts were 2652 μg/kg and 481 μg/kg, respectively), as well as with BEA (maximum amount was 49 μg/kg) was typical for barley and oat grain samples. The content of MON (maximum amount was 50 μg/kg) in the grain of three different small grain cereals was similar.

Comprehensive review on patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and derived products

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi, which can contaminate various food commodities, including fruits and their derived products. Patulin and Alternaria toxins are among the most commonly encountered mycotoxins in fruit and their derived products. In this review, the sources, toxicity, and regulations related to these mycotoxins, as well as their detection and mitigation strategies are widely discussed. Patulin is a mycotoxin produced mainly by the fungal genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Byssochlamys. Alternaria toxins, produced by fungi in the Alternaria genus, are another common group of mycotoxins found in fruits and fruit products. The most prevalent Alternaria toxins are alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME). These mycotoxins are of concern due to their potential negative effects on human health. Ingesting fruits contaminated with these mycotoxins can cause acute and chronic health problems. Detection of patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and their derived products can be challenging due to their low concentrations and the complexity of the food matrices. Common analytical methods, good agricultural practices, and contamination monitoring of these mycotoxins are important for safe consumption of fruits and derived products. And Future research will continue to explore new methods for detecting and managing these mycotoxins, with the ultimate goal of ensuring the safety and quality of fruits and derived product supply.

Composition-Based Risk Estimation of Mycotoxins in Dry Dog Foods

The risk of mycotoxins co-occurrence in extrusion-produced dry foods increases due to their composition based on various grains and vegetables. This study aimed to validate a risk estimation for the association between ingredients and the ELISA-detected levels of DON, FUM, ZEA, AFs, T2, and OTA in 34 dry dog food products. The main ingredients were corn, beet, and oil of different origins (of equal frequency, 79.41%), rice (67.6%), and wheat (50%). DON and FUM had the strongest positive correlation (0.635, p = 0.001). The presence of corn in the sample composition increased the median DON and ZEA levels, respectively, by 99.45 μg/kg and 65.64 μg/kg, p = 0.011. In addition to DON and ZEA levels, integral corn presence increased the FUM median levels by 886.61 μg/kg, p = 0.005. For corn gluten flour-containing samples, DON, FUM, and ZEA median differences still existed, and OTA levels also differed by 1.99 μg/kg, p < 0.001. Corn gluten flour presence was strongly associated with DON levels > 403.06 μg/kg (OR = 38.4, RR = 9.90, p = 0.002), FUM levels > 1097.56 μg/kg (OR = 5.56, RR = 1.45, p = 0.048), ZEA levels > 136.88 μg/kg (OR = 23.00, RR = 3.09, p = 0.002), and OTA levels > 3.93 μg/kg (OR = 24.00, RR = 3.09, p = 0.002). Our results suggest that some ingredients or combinations should be avoided due to their risk of increasing mycotoxin levels.

Genetic Regulation of Mycotoxin Biosynthesis

Mycotoxin contamination in food poses health hazards to humans. Current methods of controlling mycotoxins still have limitations and more effective approaches are needed. During the past decades of years, variable environmental factors have been tested for their influence on mycotoxin production leading to elucidation of a complex regulatory network involved in mycotoxin biosynthesis. These regulators are putative targets for screening molecules that could inhibit mycotoxin synthesis. Here, we summarize the regulatory mechanisms of hierarchical regulators, including pathway-specific regulators, global regulators and epigenetic regulators, on the production of the most critical mycotoxins (aflatoxins, patulin, citrinin, trichothecenes and fumonisins). Future studies on regulation of mycotoxins will provide valuable knowledge for exploring novel methods to inhibit mycotoxin biosynthesis in a more efficient way.

Effectiveness of citrus fruit peel as a biosorbent for the mitigation of aflatoxins in vitro

We assessed the effectiveness of novel and cost-effective citrus fruit peel (oranges, agro-waste material) for the removal of four aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂ in vitro. The biosorbent was described using SEM, XRF, XRD, FITR spectroscopy, and point of zero charge. The adsorption performance was optimised in a batch experiment by altering the various parameters, such as biosorbent dose (1-15 mg/mL), the preliminary concentration of AFs (20-200 ng/mL), pH (1-9), the incubation period (10-60 min), and temperature (10-45 °C). Maximum removal (90%) was achieved when using biosorbent at 10 mg, each AF concentration 100 ng/mL, pH 3, and incubation time 45 min at 37 °C. The experimental data were well-described by the Langmuir isotherm model and the monolayer coverage (Qe) was calculated to be 78.5, 77.8, 79.2, and 75.6 ng/mg for aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂, respectively. The thermodynamic and kinetic studies suggested that the adsorption performance was endothermic and obeyed the pseudo-second-order rate model. Studies at different pH also proved that the adsorption of toxins would be strong and sufficient under pH variation, as found in the gastrointestinal tract. Thus the biosorption of AFs by orange peel powder might be an efficient low price detoxification method in humans and animals.

Lactic Acid Bacteria as Potential Agents for Biocontrol of Aflatoxigenic and Ochratoxigenic Fungi

Aflatoxins (AF) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are fungal metabolites that have carcinogenic, teratogenic, embryotoxic, genotoxic, neurotoxic, and immunosuppressive effects in humans and animals. The increased consumption of plant-based foods and environmental conditions associated with climate change have intensified the risk of mycotoxin intoxication. This study aimed to investigate the abilities of eleven selected LAB strains to reduce/inhibit the growth of Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus welwitschiae, Aspergillus steynii, Aspergillus westerdijkiae, and Penicillium verrucosum and AF and OTA production under different temperature regiments. Data were treated by ANOVA, and machine learning (ML) models able to predict the growth inhibition percentage were built, and their performance was compared. All factors LAB strain, fungal species, and temperature significantly affected fungal growth and mycotoxin production. The fungal growth inhibition range was 0-100%. Overall, the most sensitive fungi to LAB treatments were P. verrucosum and A. steynii, while the least sensitive were A. niger and A. welwitschiae. The LAB strains with the highest antifungal activity were Pediococcus pentosaceus (strains S11sMM and M9MM5b). The reduction range for AF was 19.0% (aflatoxin B1)-60.8% (aflatoxin B2) and for OTA, 7.3-100%, depending on the bacterial and fungal strains and temperatures. The LAB strains with the highest anti-AF activity were the three strains of P. pentosaceus and Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. dextranicum (T2MM3), and those with the highest anti-OTA activity were Leuconostoc paracasei ssp. paracasei (3T3R1) and L. mesenteroides ssp. dextranicum (T2MM3). The best ML methods in predicting fungal growth inhibition were multilayer perceptron neural networks, followed by random forest. Due to anti-fungal and anti-mycotoxin capacity, the LABs strains used in this study could be good candidates as biocontrol agents against aflatoxigenic and ochratoxigenic fungi and AFL and OTA accumulation.

Industrial-Scale Cleaning Solutions for the Reduction of Fusarium Toxins in Maize

Grain cleaning is the most effective non-destructive post-harvest mitigation strategy to reduce high levels of mycotoxins on account of the removal of mold-infected grains and grain fractions with high mycotoxin content. In this study, the reduction in the concentration of some co-occurring Fusarium toxins in maize, namely deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisins B1 and B2 (FBs), was evaluated at an industrial-scale level by mechanical removal (sieving and density separation) of dust, coarse, small, broken, shriveled and low-density kernels and/or optical sorting of defected kernels. Samples were dynamically collected according to the Commission Regulation No. 401/2006 along the entire process line. Mycotoxin analyses of water-slurry aggregate samples were performed by validated LC methods. Depending on the contamination levels in raw incoming maize, the overall reduction rates ranged from 36 to 67% for DON, from 67 to 87% for ZEA and from 27 to 67% for FBs. High levels of DON, ZEA and FBs were found in all rejected fractions with values, respectively, up to 3030%, 1510% and 2680%, compared to their content in uncleaned maize. Results showed that grain cleaning equipment based on mechanical and or optical sorting technologies can provide a significant reduction in Fusarium toxin contamination in maize.

Single, Subsequent, or Simultaneous Treatments to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Solid Foods and Feeds: A Critical Review

Mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds jeopardize the public health of humans and animals and cause food security issues. The inefficacy of most preventive measures to control the production of fungi in foods and feeds during the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages incited interest in the mitigation of these mycotoxins that can be conducted by the application of various chemical, physical, and/or biological treatments. These treatments are implemented separately or through a combination of two or more treatments simultaneously or subsequently. The reduction rates of the methods differ greatly, as do their effect on the organoleptic attributes, nutritional quality, and the environment. This critical review aims at summarizing the latest studies related to the mitigation of mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds. It discusses and evaluates the single and combined mycotoxin reduction treatments, compares their efficiency, elaborates on their advantages and disadvantages, and sheds light on the treated foods or feeds, as well as on their environmental impact.

Identification of Candidate Ice Nucleation Activity (INA) Genes in Fusarium avenaceum by Combining Phenotypic Characterization with Comparative Genomics and Transcriptomics

Ice nucleation activity (INA) is the capacity of certain particles to catalyze ice formation at temperatures higher than the temperature at which pure water freezes. INA impacts the ratio of liquid to frozen cloud droplets and, therefore, the formation of precipitation and Earth’s radiative balance. Some Fusarium strains secrete ice-nucleating particles (INPs); they travel through the atmosphere and may thus contribute to these atmospheric processes. Fusarium INPs were previously found to consist of proteinaceous aggregates. Here, we determined that in F. avenaceum, the proteins forming these aggregates are smaller than 5 nm and INA is higher after growth at low temperatures and varies among strains. Leveraging these findings, we used comparative genomics and transcriptomics to identify candidate INA genes. Ten candidate INA genes that were predicted to encode secreted proteins were present only in the strains that produced the highest number of INPs. In total, 203 candidate INA genes coding for secreted proteins were induced at low temperatures. Among them, two genes predicted to encode hydrophobins stood out because hydrophobins are small, secreted proteins that form aggregates with amphipathic properties. We discuss the potential of the candidate genes to encode INA proteins and the next steps necessary to identify the molecular basis of INA in F. avenaceum.

Mycotoxins occurrence in milk and cereals in North African countries - a review

North African countries; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia suffer from mycotoxin contamination. Various studies have indicated the presence of mycotoxins in raw milk and cereals (i.e. wheat, barley, maize and cereal-based products). Aflatoxins (AFs), Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), Ochratoxin A (OTA), Fumonisin (FB1) and Zearalenone (ZEN)-mycotoxin are the most detected due to climatic change in the region. In this review, we will present the kind of foods and feeds cereals and milk based products contaminated and the level of their contaminated mycotoxin. On the other hand, researchers try to find biologic methods to remove/mitigate mycotoxins in food and feed using bio-products. But the research works concerning legislations and mycotoxin risk assessment still rare. Therefore, it appears necessary to make review on the current status of mycotoxins in North African countries in order to explore data related to contamination of basic food in this region and to highlight the problem to the policy-makers to establish a serious legislation on this matter. On the other hand, to give more information to the worldwide readers about the impact of climate change on the food and feed pollution on mycotoxins in the Mediterranean Sea region.

Nivalenol Mycotoxin Concerns in Foods: An Overview on Occurrence, Impact on Human and Animal Health and Its Detection and Management Strategies

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that infect a wide range of foods worldwide. Nivalenol (NIV), a type B trichothecene produced by numerous Fusarium species, has the ability to infect a variety of foods both in the field and during post-harvest handling and management. NIV is frequently found in cereal and cereal-based goods, and its strong cytotoxicity poses major concerns for both human and animal health. To address these issues, this review briefly overviews the sources, occurrence, chemistry and biosynthesis of NIV. Additionally, a brief overview of several sophisticated detection and management techniques is included, along with the implications of processing and environmental factors on the formation of NIV. This review’s main goal is to offer trustworthy and current information on NIV as a mycotoxin concern in foods, with potential mitigation measures to assure food safety and security.

Determination and detoxification of aflatoxin and ochratoxin in maize from different regions of Pakistan

The contamination of food commodities with mycotoxins could be a serious health threat to humans and animals. Therefore, identification, quantification and reduction of mycotoxins in food commodities, particularly of aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in grain foods, is essentially required to guarantee safe food. This study determined the levels of AFs and OTA in 135 maize grains samples belonging to eight salient maize varieties cultivated in Pakistan, and evaluated the usefulness of radiations and adsorbents to reduce their levels. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-based method was validated for the determination of AFs and OTA in maize grains. The results showed that 69 and 61% samples were positive for AFs and OTA, respectively and 54 and 22% of the respective samples had AFs and OTA above the permissible limits set by Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority. The concentration of AFs, AFB1and OTA in grains ranged from 14.5 to 92.4, 1.02 to 2.46 and 1.41 to 53.9 μg kg^-1, respectively. Among the varieties, Pearl had the highest level of total AFs and OTA, whereas YH-5427 had the highest AFB1 level. The lowest concentration of AFs and OTA was found in Malaka and 30Y87, respectively. The use of 15 kGy gamma irradiation for 24 h, sunlight-drying for 20 h and UV irradiation for 12 h almost completely degraded the mycotoxins. The microwave heating for 120 s resulted in 9-33% degradation of mycotoxins. Moreover, the treatment of grains' extract with activated charcoal (5% w/w) removed > 96% of total AFs and AFB1, and up to 43% of OTA. The use of bentonite at the same rate removed OTA, total AFs and AFB1 by 93, 73 and 92%, respectively. Thus, it is concluded that contamination of maize grains with mycotoxins was fairly high in the collected maize grain samples in Pakistan, and treatment with radiations and adsorbents can effectively reduce mycotoxins contamination level in maize grains.

Monascus spp. and citrinin: Identification, selection of Monascus spp. isolates, occurrence, detection and reduction of citrinin during the fermentation of red fermented rice

Red fermented rice (RFR) is rice fermented using Monascus spp. This product contains monacolin K, providing health benefits including mitigation of diarrhoea and improving blood circulation. RFR can produce pigments that can act as natural colour and flavouring agents. However, Monascus spp. (a fungal starter to ferment RFR) can also produce the mycotoxin, citrinin (CIT) which is believed to have adverse effects on human health. CIT in RFR has been reported worldwide by using different methods of detection. This review focuses on the production of RFR by solid-state fermentation (SSF) and submerged fermentation (SmF), the occurrence of CIT in RFR, CIT quantification, the factors affecting the growth of Monascus spp., pigments and CIT production in RFR, and possible methods to reduce CIT in RFR. This review will help the food industries, researchers, and consumers understand the risk of consuming RFR, and the possibility of controlling CIT in RFR.

Association between forage mycotoxins and liver disease in horses

Background

Outbreaks of liver disease in horses are common but the etiology of most remains unknown. Forage mycotoxins have been suspected to be a cause.

Objectives

To examine the association between outbreaks of liver disease and the presence of mycotoxins in forage stored on the same premises.

Animals

Premises were identified where ≥4 horses were contemporaneously affected by liver disease, and a control group was formed from premises where ≥4 horses had been examined and found to have no evidence of liver disease.

Methods

Forage was collected from 29 case and 12 control premises. The forage was analyzed for mycotoxin content using a liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry method, targeting 54 mycotoxins. The presence and distribution of mycotoxins between case and control samples was compared.

Results

Mycotoxins were found in 23/29 (79%) case samples and 10/12 (83%) control samples (P > .99; relative risk, 0.93; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.64‐1.75). Median (interquartile range [IQR]) total mycotoxin concentration was similar in case and control samples (85.8 μg/kg [1.6‐268] vs. 315 μg/kg [6.3‐860]; P = .16). Ten mycotoxins were found exclusively in case premises comprising fumonisin B1, 15‐acetyldeoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, aflatoxins B1 and G1, methylergonovine, nivalenol, verruculogen, and wortmannin. The median (IQR) concentration of fumonisin B1 was significantly higher in case versus control samples (0 μg/kg [0‐81.7] vs. 0 μg/kg [0‐0]; P = .04).

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Several mycotoxins with known hepatotoxic potential were found, alone or in combination, exclusively at case premises, consistent with the hypothesis that forage‐associated mycotoxicosis may be a cause of outbreaks of liver disease in horses in the United Kingdom.

Mycotoxin Regulatory Status in Africa: A Decade of Weak Institutional Efforts

Food safety problems are a major hindrance to achieving food security, trade, and healthy living in Africa. Fungi and their secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins, represent an important concern in this regard. Attempts such as agricultural, storage, and processing practices, and creation of awareness to tackle the menace of fungi and mycotoxins have yielded measurable outcomes especially in developed countries, where there are comprehensive mycotoxin legislations and enforcement schemes. Conversely, most African countries do not have mycotoxin regulatory limits and even when available, are only applied for international trade. Factors such as food insecurity, public ignorance, climate change, poor infrastructure, poor research funding, incorrect prioritization of resources, and nonchalant attitudes that exist among governmental organisations and other stakeholders further complicate the situation. In the present review, we discuss the status of mycotoxin regulation in Africa, with emphasis on the impact of weak mycotoxin legislations and enforcement on African trade, agriculture, and health. Furthermore, we discuss the factors limiting the establishment and control of mycotoxins in the region.

Impact of Storage Conditions and Mold Types on Aflatoxin B1 Concentration in Corn Residue used as Dairy Feed in Small Holder Dairy Farms, Thailand

The aims of this study were to determine the impact of storage practice and mold types on mold growth and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) concentration in corn residue from local seed corn plants, the main roughage source of dairy farms in the northern region in Thailand. A total of 223 samples from 2 types of corn residue - dried and wet - were collected. Mold contamination was determined by spread plate technique, and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) quantification was performed by a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Multivariate linear models were created to determine factors associated with fungal quantity and AFB₁ concentration. Results showed that the presence of Cladosporium spp. in the samples was associated with a lower risk of AFB1 contamination (P<0.05). In addition, appropriate storage practices, e.g. keeping feeds under a roof and using floor canvas under feed piles, gave lower risk of mold contamination and decreasing AFB₁ contamination.