Application of Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy in determination of microalgal compositions

Statistical Methods for Rapid Quantification of Proteins, Lipids, and Carbohydrates in Nordic Microalgal Species Using ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy

Attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy is a simple, cheap, and fast method to collect chemical compositional information from microalgae. However, (semi)quantitative evaluation of the collected data can be daunting. In this work, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy was used to monitor changes of protein, lipid, and carbohydrate content in seven green microalgae grown under nitrogen starvation. Three statistical methods-univariate linear regression analysis (ULRA), orthogonal partial least squares (OPLS), and multivariate curve resolution-alternating least squares (MCR-ALS)-were compared in their ability to model and predict the concentration of these compounds in the biomass. OPLS was found superior, since it i) included all three compounds simultaneously; ii) explained variations in the data very well; iii) had excellent prediction accuracy for proteins and lipids, and acceptable for carbohydrates; and iv) was able to discriminate samples based on cultivation stage and type of storage compounds accumulated in the cells. ULRA models worked well for the determination of proteins and lipids, but carbohydrates could only be estimated if already determined protein contents were used for scaling. Results obtained by MCR-ALS were similar to ULRA, however, this method is considerably easier to perform and interpret than the more abstract statistical/chemometric methods. FTIR-spectroscopy-based models allow high-throughput, cost-effective, and rapid estimation of biomass composition of green microalgae.

Analyzing the Biochemical Alteration of Green Algae During Chronic Exposure to Triclosan Based on Synchrotron-Based Fourier Transform Infrared Spectromicroscopy

The study explored the chronic toxicity of triclosan to green microalga Chlorococcum sp. under multiple interactions among multiple environmental conditions. This is the first study on chronic algal toxicity to combine synchrotron-based Fourier transform infrared spectromicroscopy, factorial analysis, principal component analysis, and stepwise-cluster analysis. Such a combination helps to reveal the toxic mechanism at the molecular level and explore the inner correlationship among multiple environmental conditions. In the 120-h test, nitrogen content became the most significant factor of the physiochemical properties. Some insignificant factors in the 48-h test became significant in the 120-h test. Temperature * nitrogen content, temperature * phosphorus content, and pH * phosphorus content were the most significant two-order interactions. Temperature * pH * NaCl concentration and temperature * NaCl concentration * phosphorus content were the most significant three-order interactions. More high-order interactions became significant in the 120-h test, indicating the complexity and impacts of all the factors may increase when time was extended. The chronic toxicity of triclosan presented more distinguishable variations among treatments based on biochemical alterations. These results demonstrate that the sensitivity and fragility of algae to triclosan can be amplified with time extension. Long-term exposure can be applied to better evaluate and predict the environmental toxicity behavior of triclosan. It can also help with environmental evaluation and risk management of real-world triclosan toxicity.

High-Throughput Biochemical Fingerprinting of Oleaginous Aurantiochytrium sp. Strains by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) for Lipid and Carbohydrate Productions

The traditional biochemical methods for analyzing cellular composition of oleaginous microorganisms are time-consuming, polluting, and expensive. In the present study, an FT-IR method was used to analyze the cellular composition of the marine oleaginous protist Aurantiochytrium sp. during various research processes, such as strains screening, medium optimization, and fermentation, and was evaluated as a green, low-cost, high throughput, and accurate method compared with the traditional methods. A total of 109 Aurantiochytrium sp. strains were screened for lipid and carbohydrate production and the best results were found for the strains No. 6 and No. 32. The yields and productivities could reach up to 47.2 g/L and 0.72 g/L/h for lipid, 21.6 g/L and 0.33 g/L/h for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the strain No. 6, and 15.4 g/L and 0.18 g/L/h for carbohydrate in the strain No. 32, under the optimal conditions, respectively. These results confirmed potentials of the two Aurantiochytrium sp. strains for lipid, DHA, and carbohydrate productions at industrial scales. The FT-IR method in this study will facilitate research on the oleaginous Aurantiochytrium sp., and the obtained two strains for lipid and carbohydrate productions will provide the foundations for their applications in medical, food, and feed industries.

Optimising of Scenedesmus sp. biomass production in chicken slaughterhouse wastewater using response surface methodology and potential utilisation as fish feeds

Production of Scenedesmus sp. biomass in chicken slaughterhouse wastewater (CSWW) is a promising alternative technique for commercial culture medium due to the high nutritional content of the generated biomass to be used as fish feeds. The current work deals with optimising of biomass production in CSWW using response surface methodology (RSM) as a function of two independent variables, namely temperature (10-30 °C) and photoperiod (6-24 h). The potential application of biomass yield as fish feeds was evaluated based on carbohydrate, protein and lipid contents. The results revealed that the best operating parameters for Scenedesmus sp. biomass production with high contents of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids were determined at 30 °C and after 24 h. The actual and predicted values were 2.47 vs. 3.09 g, 1.44 vs. 1.27 μg/mL, 29.9 vs. 31.60% and 25.75 vs. 28.44%, respectively. Moreover, the produced biomass has a high concentration of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) as follows: 35.91% of C15:1; 17.58% of C24:1 and 14.11% of C18:1N9T. The biomass yields have 7.98% of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5N3) which is more appropriate as fish feeds. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis of biomass revealed that the main functional groups included hydroxyl (OH), aldehyde (=C-H), alkanes and acyl chain groups. Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopic analysis (EDS) indicated that the surface morphology and element distribution in biomass produced in BBM and CSWW were varied. The findings have indicated that the biomass produced in CSWW has high potential as fish feeds.

Live Single-Cell Metabolomics With Matrix-Free Laser/Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry to Address Microalgal Physiology

Unicellular phototrophic algae can form massive blooms with up to millions of individual cells per milliliter in freshwater and marine ecosystems. Despite the temporal dominance of bloom formers many algal species can co-exist and compete for nutrients and space, creating a complex and diverse community. While microscopy and single cell genomics can address the taxonomic inventory, the cellular metabolome has yet to be thoroughly explored to determine the physiological status of microalgae. This might, however, provide a key to understand the observed species diversity in the homogeneous environment. Here, we introduce an effective, rapid and versatile method to analyze living single cells from aqueous substrata with laser-desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (LDI-MS) using a simple and inexpensive matrix-free support. The cells deposited on a cultivation-medium wetted support are analyzed with minimal disturbance as they remain in their natural viable state until their disruption during LDI-MS. Metabolites desorbed from single cells are analyzed on High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (HR-MS) using the Orbitrap FT-MS technology to fingerprint cellular chemistry. This live single-cell mass spectrometry (LSC-MS) allows assessing the physiological status and strain-specifics of different microalgae, including marine diatoms and freshwater chlorophytes, at the single-cell level. We further report a reliable and robust data treatment pipeline to perform multivariate statistics on the replicated LSC-MS data. Comparing single cell MS spectra from natural phytoplankton samples and from laboratory strains allows the identification and discrimination of inter and intra-specific metabolic variability and thereby has promising applications in addressing highly complex phytoplankton communities. Notably, the herein described matrix-free live-single-cell LDI-HR-MS approach enables monitoring dynamics of the plankton and might explain why key-players survive, thrive, avoid selective feeding or pathogenic virus and bacteria, while others are overcome and die.

Optimal cultivation towards enhanced biomass and floridean starch production by Porphyridium marinum

Optimal conditions for maximal biomass and starch production by the marine red microalgae Porphyridium marinum were investigated. Box-Behnken Design was used to model the effect of light intensity, NaNO₃ concentration and salinity on the growth of microalgae but also on their starch and protein contents. These three factors increased biomass production by 13.6% in optimized conditions. A maximum starch production (140.21 μg·mL^-1), 30.6% higher than that of the control, was attained at a light intensity of 100 μmol photons·m^-2·s^-1, a NaNO₃ concentration of 1 g·L^-1 and a NaCl concentration of 20 g·L^-1. FT-IR spectroscopy was used to estimate the biochemical composition (carbohydrate accumulation) of P. marinum and revealed significant changes (P < 0.05) depending on culture conditions. FT-IR analysis highlighted also that the culture conditions leading to highest starch production by P. marinum corresponded to lowest sulfated polysaccharide and protein contents.

Estimating and correcting interference fringes in infrared spectra in infrared hyperspectral imaging

Short-term acclimation response of individual cells of Thalassiosira weissflogii was monitored by Synchrotron FTIR imaging over the span of 75 minutes. The cells, collected from batch cultures, were maintained in a constant flow of medium, at an irradiance of 120 μmol m-2 s-1 and at 20 °C. Multiple internal reflections due to the micro fluidic channel were modeled, and showed that fringes are additive sinusoids to the pure absorption of the other components of the system. Preprocessing of the hyperspectral cube (x, y, Abs(λ)) included removing spectral fringe using an EMSC approach. Principal component analysis of the time series of hyperspectral cubes showed macromolecular pool variations (carbohydrates, lipids and DNA/RNA) of less than 2% after fringe correction.

Mixotrophic and heterotrophic production of lipids and carbohydrates by a locally isolated microalga using wastewater as a growth medium

The biomass production and changes in biochemical composition of a locally isolated microalga (Chlorella sp.) were investigated in autotrophic, mixotrophic and heterotrophic conditions, using glucose or glycerol as carbon sources and municipal wastewater as the growth medium. Both standard methods and Multivariate Curve Resolution-Alternating Least Squares (MCR-ALS) analysis of data acquired by Fourier-transform IR (FTIR) spectrometry showed that autotrophic and mixotrophic conditions promoted carbohydrate accumulation, while heterotrophic conditions with glycerol resulted in the highest lipid content and lowest carbohydrate content. Heterotrophic conditions with glycerol as a carbon source also resulted in high oleic acid (18:1) contents and low linolenic acid (18:3) contents, and thus increasing biodiesel quality. The results also show the utility of MCR-ALS for analyzing changes in microalgal biochemical composition.

Diagnostic tool to ascertain marine phytoplankton exposure to chemically enhanced water accommodated fraction of oil using Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy

Phytoplankton alter their macromolecule composition in response to changing environmental conditions. Often these changes are consistent and can be used as indicators to predict their exposure to a given condition. FTIR-spectroscopy is a powerful tool that provides rapid snapshot of microbial samples. We used FTIR to develop signature macromolecular composition profiles of three cultures: Skeletonema costatum, Emiliania huxleyi, and Navicula sp., exposed to chemically enhanced water accommodated oil fraction (CEWAF) in artificial seawater and control. Using a multivariate model created with a Partial Least Square Discriminant Analysis of the FTIR-spectra, classification of CEWAF exposed versus control samples was possible. This model was validated using aggregate samples from a mesocosm study. Analysis of spectra and PCA-loadings plot showed changes to carbohydrates and proteins in response to CEWAF. Overall we developed a robust multivariate model that can be used to identify if a phytoplankton sample has been exposed to oil with dispersant.

Insights into the Toxicity of Triclosan to Green Microalga Chlorococcum sp. Using Synchrotron-Based Fourier Transform Infrared Spectromicroscopy: Biophysiological Analyses and Roles of Environmental Factors

This study investigated the toxicity of triclosan to the green microalga Chlorococcum sp. under multiple environmental stressors. The interactions between triclosan and environmental stressors were explored through full two-way factorial, synchrotron-based Fourier transform infrared spectromicroscopy and principal component analyses. Phosphorus concentration, pH * phosphorus concentration, and temperature * pH * NaCl concentration were the most statistically significant factors under triclosan exposure. The variation of those factors would have a huge impact on biophysiological performances. It is interesting to find Chlorococcum sp. may become more resistant against triclosan in phosphorus-enriched environment. Besides, particular significant factors from multiple environmental stressors showed the impacts of triclosan on the corresponding response of Chlorococcum sp. owing to the specific structure and performance of biomolecular components. Moreover, two high-order interactions of temperature * pH * NaCl concentration and temperature * pH * NaCl concentration * phosphorus concentration had more contributions than others at the subcellular level, which could be attributed to the interactive complexity of biomolecular components. Due to cellular self-regulation mechanism and short exposure time, the biophysiological changes of Chlorococcum sp. were undramatic. These findings can help reveal the interactive complexity among triclosan and multiple environmental stressors. It is suggested that multiple environmental stressors should be considered during ecological risk assessment and management of emerging pollutants.

Effect of an enzymatic treatment with cellulase and mannanase on the structural properties of Nannochloropsis microalgae

The effects of an enzymatic treatment with cellulase and mannanase on the properties of marine microalgae Nannochloropsis sp. were investigated. The combined use of these enzymes synergistically promoted the recovery of lipids from the microalgae, increasing the extraction yield from 40.8 to over 73%. Untreated and enzymatically treated microalgae were characterized by chemical analysis and by TGA/DTG, FTIR, XRD and SEM. Significant changes were observed in the chemical composition and thermal behavior of the microalgae. The enzymatic treatment also resulted in an increase of the crystalline-to-amorphous cellulose ratio. SEM images revealed dramatic changes in cell morphology, extensive cell damage and release of intracellular material. Overall, the results obtained indicate that the enzymes used are capable of disrupting the microalgal cell wall and that a combination of common analytical techniques can be used to assess the enzyme-induced damage.

Growth improvement and metabolic profiling of native and commercial Chlorella sorokiniana strains acclimatized in recycled agricultural wastewater

This study investigated acclimation ability of native Chlorella sorokiniana (CS-N) and commercial Chlorella sorokiniana (CS-C) in palm oil mill effluent (POME), their metabolic profile and feasibility of effluent recycling for dilution purpose. Maximum specific growth rate, µ_max and lag time, λ of the microalgae were evaluated. Result shows both strains produced comparable growth in POME, with µ_max of 0.31 day^-1 and 0.30 day^-1 respectively, albeit longer λ by the CS-C. However, three cycles of acclimation was able to reduce λ from eight days to two days for CS-C. Metabolic profiling using principal component analysis (PCA) shows clear cluster of acclimatized strains to suggest better stress tolerance of CS-N. Finally, a remarkable µ_max of 0.57 day^-1 without lag phase was achieved using acclimatized CS-N in 40% POME concentration. Acclimation has successfully shortened the λ and dilution with final effluent was proved to be feasible for further improvement of the microalgae growth.

Microtiter plate cultivation of oleaginous fungi and monitoring of lipogenesis by high-throughput FTIR spectroscopy

Background

Oleaginous fungi can accumulate lipids by utilizing a wide range of waste substrates. They are an important source for the industrial production of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (gamma-linolenic and arachidonic acid) and have been suggested as an alternative route for biodiesel production. Initial research steps for various applications include the screening of fungi in order to find efficient fungal producers with desired fatty acid composition. Traditional cultivation methods (shake flask) and lipid analysis (extraction-gas chromatography) are not applicable for large-scale screening due to their low throughput and time-consuming analysis. Here we present a microcultivation system combined with high-throughput Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy for efficient screening of oleaginous fungi.

Results

The microcultivation system enables highly reproducible fungal fermentations throughout 12 days of cultivation. Reproducibility was validated by FTIR and HPLC data. Analysis of FTIR spectral ester carbonyl peaks of fungal biomass offered a reliable high-throughput at-line method to monitor lipid accumulation. Partial least square regression between gas chromatography fatty acid data and corresponding FTIR spectral data was used to set up calibration models for the prediction of saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, unsaturation index, total lipid content and main individual fatty acids. High coefficients of determination (R² = 0.86–0.96) and satisfactory residual predictive deviation of cross-validation (RPD_CV = 2.6–5.1) values demonstrated the goodness of these models.

Conclusions

We have demonstrated in this study, that the presented microcultivation system combined with rapid, high-throughput FTIR spectroscopy is a suitable screening platform for oleaginous fungi. Sample preparation for FTIR measurements can be automated to further increase throughput of the system.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-017-0716-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effects of nutritional conditions on growth and biochemical composition of Tetraselmis sp

Background

This study aimed to maximize biomass concentration, biomass productivity and biochemical composition of the marine microalga Tetraselmis sp.

Methods

In the current study, Box-Behnken Design was used to model the effect of NaNO₃, NaH₂PO₄, metals and vitamins in the F/2 medium on the growth, total chlorophylls, carotenoids and starch contents. The total chlorophylls content was quantified by spectrophotometry. The FT-IR spectroscopy was used to estimate the biochemical compositions of Tetraselmis sp. grown under both optimized medium culture for starch production and standard culture medium.

Results

Finalized NaNO₃ (1.76 mM), NaH₂PO₄ (0.018 mM), metals (1500 μL.L⁻¹) and vitamins (312.5 μL.L⁻¹) concentrations, generated an increase in biomass concentration up to 5.72 g.L⁻¹ which contributed to an increase about 2.4-fold than that of the standard conditions of biomass productivity (408.57 mg.L⁻¹.day⁻¹). The maximum value of carotenoids content (0.3 mg.g DW⁻¹) was achieved at the highest level of all factors. The total chlorophylls content reached also its maximum (5.18 mg.g DW⁻¹) at high nitrate (1.76 mM), phosphate (0.054 mM), metals and vitamins concentrations, while the maximum starch content (42% DW) was achieved with low nitrate and phosphate concentrations (0.58 mM and 0.027 mM) and with metals and vitamins limitations. Thus, the nitrogen, phosphorus, metals and vitamins limitations led to divert the metabolism for the starch biosynthesis.

Conclusions

The high biomass concentration productivity and starch production make Tetraselmis sp. strain a good candidate for biotechnological applications.

Kelp waste extracts combined with acetate enhances the biofuel characteristics of Chlorella sorokiniana

To probe the effect of kelp waste extracts (KWE) combined with acetate on biochemical composition of Chlorella sorokiniana, the cultures were performed under independent/combined treatment of KWE and acetate. The results showed that high cell density and biomass were obtained by KWE combined with acetate treatments, whose biomass productivity increased by 79.69-102.57% and 20.04-35.32% compared with 3.0gL-1 acetate and KWE treatments respectively. The maximal neutral lipid per cell and lipid productivity were gained in KWE combined with 3.0gL-1 acetate treatment, which increased by 16.32% and 129.03% compared with 3.0gL-1 acetate, and 253.35% and 70.74% compared with KWE treatment. Meanwhile, C18:3n3 and C18:2n6c contents were reduced to 4.90% and 11.88%, whereas C16:0 and C18:1n9c were improved to 28.71% and 37.76%. Hence, supplementing appropriate acetate in KWE cultures is supposed to be a great potential method for large-scale cultivation of C. sorokiniana to generate biofuel.

Effects of CeO2, CuO, and ZnO nanoparticles on physiological features of Microcystis aeruginosa and the production and composition of extracellular polymeric substances

Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are key components of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa and play an important role in cyanobacteria blooms formation. Here, we analyzed the effects of 48-h exposure to nanosized CeO₂ (n-CeO₂), CuO (n-CuO), and ZnO (n-ZnO) on the production and composition of EPS of M. aeruginosa. Toxicity experiments revealed that soluble nanoparticles (NPs) (n-ZnO, n-CuO) demonstrated higher toxicity to cells and caused membrane damage. The production of LB-EPS increased by 34.48, 20.09, and 46.33 %, and TB-EPS increased by -5.78, 22.3, and -2.67 % in the presence of n-CeO₂, n-CuO, and n-ZnO NPs, respectively, and polysaccharides are the main incremental portion compared with protein and humic acids. Three-dimensional excitation-emission fluorescence spectra revealed the enhancement of fulvic-humic-like and disappearance of tyrosine aromatic substances in TB-EPS compared with the slight changes observed in LB-EPS. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy illustrated the susceptibility of -NH₂ and double-bonded carbon and oxygen in amides to three types of NPs. These results improve our understanding of the potential influence of NPs on the aggregation behaviors of cyanobacteria and formation process of cyanobacteria blooms. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Biodiesel production from different algal oil using immobilized pure lipase and tailor made rPichia pastoris with Cal A and Cal B genes

In this investigation, oil extraction was performed in marine macroalgae Gracilaria edulis, Enteromorpha compressa and Ulva lactuca. The algal biomass was characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy and Fourier Transform-Infra Red Spectroscopy. Six different pre-treatment methods were carried out to evaluate the best method for maximum oil extraction. Optimization of extraction parameters were performed and high oil yield was obtained at temperature 55°C, time 150min, particle size 0.10mm, solvent-to-solid ratio 6:1 and agitation rate 500rpm. After optimization, 9.5%, 12.18% and 10.50 (g/g) of oil extraction yield was achieved from the respective algal biomass. The rate constant for extraction was obtained as first order kinetics, by differential method. Stable intracellular Cal A and Cal B lipase producing recombinant Pichia pastoris was constructed and used as biocatalyst for biodiesel production. Comparative analysis of lipase activity and biodiesel yield was made with immobilized Candida antarctica lipase.

Selection of microalgae for high CO2 fixation efficiency and lipid accumulation from ten Chlorella strains using municipal wastewater

As significant differences in cellular physiology, metabolic potential and genetics occur among strains with morphological similarity, the screening of appropriate microalgae species for effective CO2 fixation and biodiesel production is extremely critical. In this study, ten strains of Chlorella were cultivated in municipal wastewater influent (MWI) and their tolerance for MWI, CO2 fixation efficiency and lipid productivity were assessed. The results showed that the biomass concentrations of four strains (Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorella 64.01, Chlorella regularis var. minima and Chlorella sp.) were significantly higher than other strains. When the cultivation systems were aerated with 10% CO2, Chlorella sp. showed the highest CO2 fixation efficiency (35.51%), while the highest lipid accumulation (58.48%) was observed with C. vulgaris. Scanning electron microscopy images revealed that the cells of both Chlorella sp. and C. vulgaris kept their normal morphologies after 15day batch culture. These findings indicated that Chlorella sp. and C. vulgaris have fairly good tolerance for MWI, and moreover, Chlorella sp. was appropriate for CO2 fixation while C. vulgaris represented the highest potential for producing biodiesel.

Advances in techniques for assessment of microalgal lipids

Microalgae are a varied group of organisms with considerable commercial potential as sources of various biochemicals, storage molecules and metabolites such as lipids, sugars, amino acids, pigments and toxins. Algal lipids can be processed to bio-oils and biodiesel. The conventional method to estimate algal lipids is based on extraction using solvents and quantification by gravimetry or chromatography. Such methods are time consuming, use hazardous chemicals and are labor intensive. For rapid screening of prospective algae or for management decisions (e.g. decision on timing of harvest), a rapid, high throughput, reliable, accurate, cost effective and preferably nondestructive analytical technique is desirable. This manuscript reviews the application of fluorescent lipid soluble dyes (Nile Red and BODIPY 505/515), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Raman, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy for the assessment of lipids in microalgae.

Identification of Microalgae by Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry Coupled with Multiple Nanomatrices

In this study, we demonstrate a simple method to identify microalgae by surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (SALDI-MS) using three different substrates: HgSe, HgTe, and HgTeSe nanostructures. The fragmentation/ionization processes of complex molecules in algae varied according to the heat absorption and transfer efficiency of the nanostructured matrices (NMs). Therefore, the mass spectra obtained for microalgae showed different patterns of m/z values for different NMs. The spectra contained both significant and nonsignificant peaks. Constructing a Venn diagram with the significant peaks obtained for algae when using HgSe, HgTe, and HgTeSe NMs in m/z ratio range 100-1000, a unique relationship among the three sets of values was obtained. This unique relationship of sets is different for each species of microalgae. Therefore, by observing the particular relationship of sets, we successfully identified different algae such as Isochrysis galbana, Emiliania huxleyi, Thalassiosira weissflogii, Nannochloris sp., Skeletonema cf. costatum, and Tetraselmis chui. This simple and cost-effective SALDI-MS analysis method coupled with multi-nanomaterials as substrates may be extended to identify other microalgae and microorganisms in real samples. Graphical Abstract Identification of microalgae by surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry coupled with three different mercury-based nanosubstrates.

Effect of algal species and light intensity on the performance of an air-lift-type microbial carbon capture cell with an algae-assisted cathode

The effect of algal species (Chlorella vulgarisandChlorellasp.) and light intensity on the performance of air-lift-type microbial carbon capture cells (ALMCCs) was investigated.

Rapid and pollution-free characterization of intracellular polyphosphate and orthophosphate using mid-infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometrics in the denitrifying phosphorus removal process

Content of the intracellular Poly-P and orthophosphate variation may be predicted rapidly by mid-infrared spectroscopy and PLS method in denitrifying phosphorus removal process.

High-throughput metabolic screening of microalgae genetic variation in response to nutrient limitation

Microalgae produce metabolites that could be useful for applications in food, biofuel or fine chemical production. The identification and development of suitable strains require analytical methods that are accurate and allow rapid screening of strains or cultivation conditions. We demonstrate the use of Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy to screen mutant strains of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. These mutants have knockdowns for one or more nutrient starvation response genes, namely PSR1, SNRK2.1 and SNRK2.2. Limitation of nutrients including nitrogen and phosphorus can induce metabolic changes in microalgae, including the accumulation of glycerolipids and starch. By performing multivariate statistical analysis of FT-IR spectra, metabolic variation between different nutrient limitation and non-stressed conditions could be differentiated. A number of mutant strains with similar genetic backgrounds could be distinguished from wild type when grown under specific nutrient limited and replete conditions, demonstrating the sensitivity of FT-IR spectroscopy to detect specific genetic traits. Changes in lipid and carbohydrate between strains and specific nutrient stress treatments were validated by other analytical methods, including liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for lipidomics. These results demonstrate that the PSR1 gene is an important determinant of lipid and starch accumulation in response to phosphorus starvation but not nitrogen starvation. However, the SNRK2.1 and SNRK2.2 genes are not as important for determining the metabolic response to either nutrient stress. We conclude that FT-IR spectroscopy and chemometric approaches provide a robust method for microalgae screening.

CO2 Fixation, Lipid Production, and Power Generation by a Novel Air-Lift-Type Microbial Carbon Capture Cell System

An air-lift-type microbial carbon capture cell (ALMCC) was constructed for the first time by using an air-lift-type photobioreactor as the cathode chamber. The performance of ALMCC in fixing high concentration of CO2, producing energy (power and biodiesel), and removing COD together with nutrients was investigated and compared with the traditional microbial carbon capture cell (MCC) and air-lift-type photobioreactor (ALP). The ALMCC system produced a maximum power density of 972.5 mW·m(-3) and removed 86.69% of COD, 70.52% of ammonium nitrogen, and 69.24% of phosphorus, which indicate that ALMCC performed better than MCC in terms of power generation and wastewater treatment efficiency. Besides, ALMCC demonstrated 9.98- and 1.88-fold increases over ALP and MCC in the CO2 fixation rate, respectively. Similarly, the ALMCC significantly presented a higher lipid productivity compared to those control reactors. More importantly, the preliminary analysis of energy balance suggested that the net energy of the ALMCC system was significantly superior to other systems and could theoretically produce enough energy to cover its consumption. In this work, the established ALMCC system simultaneously achieved the high level of CO2 fixation, energy recycle, and municipal wastewater treatment effectively and efficiently.

Physicochemical characterization of wet microalgal cells disrupted with instant catapult steam explosion for lipid extraction

Instant catapult steam explosion (ICSE) was employed to disrupt wet microalgal cells for efficient lipid extraction. Physicochemical properties of exploded cells were investigated through SEM, TEM, FTIR, and TGA. The exploded cells increased in fractal dimension (1.53-1.65) when preheat time was prolonged from 0 min to 5 min and in surface pore area when steam pressure was increased. Meanwhile, the exploded cells decreased in mean size (1.69-1.44 μm) when the filling ratio of wet microalgal biomass in the preheat chamber decreased (75-12.5%). Flash evaporation and volume expansion exploded the cell walls and released the cytoplasm of the microalgal cells. These phenomena decreased the carbohydrate content and increased the lipid content in the exploded biomass. However, ICSE treatment did not change the lipid compositions in the microalgal cells. Using isopropanol as a cosolvent significantly increased the yield of lipids extracted with hexane from the exploded wet microalgal biomass.

Diatom milking: a review and new approaches

The rise of human populations and the growth of cities contribute to the depletion of natural resources, increase their cost, and create potential climatic changes. To overcome difficulties in supplying populations and reducing the resource cost, a search for alternative pharmaceutical, nanotechnology, and energy sources has begun. Among the alternative sources, microalgae are the most promising because they use carbon dioxide (CO2) to produce biomass and/or valuable compounds. Once produced, the biomass is ordinarily harvested and processed (downstream program). Drying, grinding, and extraction steps are destructive to the microalgal biomass that then needs to be renewed. The extraction and purification processes generate organic wastes and require substantial energy inputs. Altogether, it is urgent to develop alternative downstream processes. Among the possibilities, milking invokes the concept that the extraction should not kill the algal cells. Therefore, it does not require growing the algae anew. In this review, we discuss research on milking of diatoms. The main themes are (a) development of alternative methods to extract and harvest high added value compounds; (b) design of photobioreactors;

The characteristics of TAG and EPA accumulation in Nannochloropsis oceanica IMET1 under different nitrogen supply regimes

The strategy of nitrogen limitation has been widely applied to enhance lipid production in microalgae. The changes of cellular composition, and the characteristics of triacylglycerol (TAG) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) accumulation in Nannochloropsis oceanica IMET1 were investigated. The results revealed that after nitrogen limitation TAG rather than carbohydrate was the dominant carbon sink in N. oceanica IMET1. Different nitrogen supplementation strategies were applied in order to achieve high TAG and EPA productivity, respectively. Limited nitrogen was supplied to improve TAG production, and a maximum productivity of 29.44 mg L(-1) d(-1) was obtained, which was a 6.74-fold increase compared to nitrogen-depleted cultivation. The highest EPA productivity of 7.66 mg L(-1) d(-1) was achieved under nitrogen-replete cultivation, which is different from the condition for TAG maximum productivity because the EPA is in glycolipids and phospholipids mainly. The fatty acid composition analysis identified the source of acyl group in TAG accumulation.

Phytoplankton strategies for photosynthetic energy allocation

Phytoplankton physiology is dynamic and highly responsive to the environment. Phytoplankton acclimate to changing environmental conditions by a complex reallocation of carbon and energy through metabolic pathways to optimize growth. Considering the tremendous diversity of phytoplankton, it is not surprising that different phytoplankton taxa use different strategies to partition carbon and energy resources. It has therefore been satisfying to discover that general principles of energetic stoichiometry appear to govern these complex processes and can be broadly applied to interpret phytoplankton distributions, productivity, and food web dynamics. The expectation of future changes in aquatic environments brought on by climate change warrants gathering knowledge about underlying patterns of photosynthetic energy allocation and their impacts on community structure and ecosystem productivity.

Surveillance of C-allocation in microalgal cells

When microalgae are exposed to changing environmental conditions, e.g., light-dark cycles or oscillations in nutrient availability (CO₂, nitrogen, phosphate or silicate) they respond with metabolic changes in the carbon allocation pattern. Short time regulations in the time range of few seconds to minutes can be mirrored best by mass spectroscopy based metabolomics. However, these snap shots do not reflect the alterations in the carbon flow to the cellular macromolecules like protein, carbohydrate or lipid. In this review it is shown how the combination of FTIR spectroscopy and Chla-in-vivo-fluorescence based electron transport rates can reveal changes in the metabolic flux rates of carbon during a shift of the environmental conditions. The review will demonstrate in which time range FTIR spectroscopy can deliver significant information and how FTIR spectroscopy data can synergistically support metabolome analysis by mass-spectroscopy.