Adverse experiences in early childhood and their longitudinal impact on later behavioral problems of children living in poverty

Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Cerebellum Cortex Fractional Anisotropy in Pre-Adolescents

Introduction

Cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy is a proxy of the integrity of the cerebellum cortex. However, less is known about how it is shaped by race and socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as parental education and household income.

Purpose

In a national sample of American pre-adolescents, this study had two aims: to test the effects of two SES indicators, namely parental education and household income, on cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy, and to explore racial differences in these effects.

Methods

Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, we analyzed the diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging (dMRI) data of 9565, 9-10-year-old pre-adolescents. The main outcomes were cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy separately calculated for right and left hemispheres using dMRI. The independent variables were parental education and household income; both treated as categorical variables. Age, sex, ethnicity, and family marital status were the covariates. Race was the moderator. To analyze the data, we used mixed-effects regression models without and with interaction terms. We controlled for propensity score and MRI device.

Results

High parental education and household income were associated with lower right and left cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy. In the pooled sample, we found significant interactions between race and parental education and household income, suggesting that the effects of parental education and household income on the right and left cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy are all significantly larger for White than for Black pre-adolescents.

Conclusions

The effects of SES indicators, namely parental education and household income, on pre-adolescents' cerebellum cortex microstructure and integrity are weaker in Black than in White families. This finding is in line with the Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs), defined as weaker effects of SES indicators for Blacks and other racial and minority groups than for Whites.

Parental Education and Left Lateral Orbitofrontal Cortical Activity during N-Back Task: An fMRI Study of American Adolescents

Introduction. The Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) is a cortical structure that has implications in cognition, memory, reward anticipation, outcome evaluation, decision making, and learning. As such, OFC activity correlates with these cognitive brain abilities. Despite research suggesting race and socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as parental education may be associated with OFC activity, limited knowledge exists on multiplicative effects of race and parental education on OFC activity and associated cognitive ability. Purpose. Using functional brain imaging data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, we tested the multiplicative effects of race and parental education on left lateral OFC activity during an N-Back task. In our study, we used a sociological rather than biological theory that conceptualizes race and SES as proxies of access to the opportunity structure and exposure to social adversities rather than innate and non-modifiable brain differences. We explored racial variation in the effect of parental educational attainment, a primary indicator of SES, on left lateral OFC activity during an N-Back task between Black and White 9–10 years old adolescents. Methods. The ABCD study is a national, landmark, multi-center brain imaging investigation of American adolescents. The total sample was 4290 9–10 years old Black or White adolescents. The independent variables were SES indicators, namely family income, parental education, and neighborhood income. The primary outcome was the average beta weight for N-Back (2 back versus 0 back contrast) in ASEG ROI left OFC activity, measured by functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) during an N-Back task. Ethnicity, age, sex, subjective SES, and family structure were the study covariates. For data analysis, we used linear regression models. Results. In White but not Black adolescents, parental education was associated with higher left lateral OFC activity during the N-Back task. In the pooled sample, we found a significant interaction between race and parental education on the outcome, suggesting that high parental education is associated with a larger increase in left OFC activity of White than Black adolescents. Conclusions. For American adolescents, race and SES jointly influence left lateral OFC activity correlated with cognition, memory, decision making, and learning. Given the central role of left lateral OFC activity in learning and memory, our finding calls for additional research on contextual factors that reduce the gain of SES for Black adolescents. Cognitive inequalities are not merely due to the additive effects of race and SES but also its multiplicative effects.

Neighborhood disadvantage, childhood adversity, bullying victimization, and adolescent depression: A multiple mediational analysis

BACKGROUND

Each of the home, school, and neighborhood environmental factors for adolescent depression has received substantial attention in the literature; however, there remains a paucity of research which systematically examines the mechanisms whereby neighborhood structural and social characteristics in early childhood affects later depressive symptoms in adolescence as transmitted through family and school adversities.

METHODS

The present study used nationally representative sampled data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal survey following a cohort of 4,898 children along with their parents and teachers at the child's birth and at 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15 years of age. Public and restricted-use data were used to merge individual surveys and neighborhood profiles.

RESULTS

Our findings suggest that both neighborhood structural disadvantage and collective efficacy have direct impacts on adverse childhood experiences, bullying victimization, and social emotional development as well as indirect impacts on adolescents' depressive symptoms. Neighborhood collective efficacy, but not structural disadvantage, was found to directly contribute to later depressive symptoms of adolescents.

LIMITATIONS

Resilience factors such as familial support and stable relationships were not considered in the current study. Due to the unavailability of data, potential reciprocal relationships among peer bullying, social emotional problems, and depressive symptoms were not examined.

CONCLUSIONS

Our finding that neighborhood characteristics contribute to the development of adolescents' depression emphasizes the importance of a healthy neighborhood environment, which also provides implications for multi-faceted interventions to promote neighborhood resources and support systems, as well as community-wide bullying prevention programs and childhood adversity screenings.

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Justice System Contact: A Systematic Review

CONTEXT

Given the wide-ranging health impacts of justice system involvement, we examined evidence for the association between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and justice system contact in the United States.

OBJECTIVE

To synthesize epidemiological evidence for the association between ACEs and justice system contact.

DATA SOURCES

We searched 5 databases for studies conducted through January 2020. The search term used for each database was as follows: ("aces" OR "childhood adversities") AND ("delinquency" OR "crime" OR "juvenile" OR criminal* OR offend*).

STUDY SELECTION

We included all observational studies assessing the association between ACEs and justice system contact conducted in the United States.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data extracted from each eligible study included information about the study design, study population, sample size, exposure and outcome measures, and key findings. Study quality was assessed by using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for nonrandomized trials.

RESULTS

In total, 10 of 11 studies reviewed were conducted in juvenile population groups. Elevated ACE scores were associated with increased risk of juvenile justice system contact. Estimates of the adjusted odds ratio of justice system contact per 1-point increase in ACE score ranged from 0.91 to 1.68. Results were consistent across multiple types of justice system contact and across geographic regions.

LIMITATIONS

Most studies reviewed were conducted in juvenile justice-involved populations with follow-up limited to adolescence or early adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

ACEs are positively associated with juvenile justice system contact in a dose-response fashion. ACE prevention programs may help reduce juvenile justice system contacts and improve child and adolescent health.

Race, Ethnicity, Family Socioeconomic Status, and Children's Hippocampus Volume

Introduction

The hippocampus has a significant role in memory, learning, and cognition. Although hippocampal size is highly susceptible to family socioeconomic status (SES) and associated stress, very little is known on racial and ethnic group differences in the effects of SES indicators on hippocampus volume among American children.

Purpose

This study explored the multiplicative effects of race, ethnicity, and family SES on hippocampus volume among American children.

Methods

Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD), we analyzed the functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) data of 9390 9-10 years old children. The main outcome was hippocampus volume. The predictor was parental education. Subjective family SES was the independent variable. Age, sex, and marital status were the covariates. Racial and ethnic group membership were the moderators. To analyze the data, we used regression models.

Results

High subjective family SES was associated with larger hippocampus volume. This effect was significantly larger for Whites than Black families.

Conclusions

The effect of subjective family SES on children's hippocampus volume is weaker in Black than White families.

Family Income Mediates the Effect of Parental Education on Adolescents' Hippocampus Activation During an N-Back Memory Task

Introduction: Hippocampus, a medial temporal lobe structure, has significant implications in memory formation and learning. Although hippocampus activity is believed to be affected by socioeconomic status (SES), limited knowledge exists on which SES indicators influence hippocampus function. Purpose: This study explored the separate and combined effects of three SES indicators, namely parental education, family income, and neighborhood income, on adolescents’ hippocampus activation during an N-Back memory task. As some of the effects of parental education may be through income, we also tested if the effect of parental education on hippocampus activation during our N-Back memory task is mediated by family or neighborhood income. Methods: The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study is a national multi-center investigation of American adolescents’ brain development. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data of a total sample of 3067 9–10-year-old adolescents were used. The primary outcome was left- hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task (mean beta weight for N-Back run 1 2 back versus 0 back contrast in left hippocampus). The independent variable was parental education. Family income and neighborhood income were two possible mediators. Age, sex, and marital status were the covariates. To test mediation, we used hierarchical linear regression models first without and then with our mediators. Full mediation was defined according to Kenny. The Sobel test was used to confirm statistical mediation. Results: In the absence of family and neighborhood income in the model, higher parental educational attainment was associated with lower level of left hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task. This effect was significant while age, sex, and marital status were controlled. The association between parental educational attainment and hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task was no more significant when we controlled for family and neighborhood income. Instead, family income was associated with hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task. These findings suggested that family income fully mediates the effect of parental educational attainment on left hippocampus activation during the N-Back memory task. Conclusions: The effect of parental educational attainment on adolescents’ hippocampus activation during an N-Back memory task is fully explained by family income. That means low family income is why adolescents with low-educated parents show highlighted hippocampus activation during an N-Back memory task. Given the central role of the hippocampus in learning and memory and as income is a modifiable factor by tax and economic policies, income-redistribution policies, fair taxation, and higher minimum wage may have implications for promotion of adolescent equality and social justice. There is a need to focus on family-level economic needs across all levels of neighborhood income.

Mindfulness, Life Skills, Resilience, and Emotional and Behavioral Problems for Gifted Low-Income Adolescents in China

In contrast to emotional and behavioral problems (EBPs), which can disrupt normal adolescent development, resilience can buffer the effects of stress and adverse childhood experiences and can help youth overcome adversity. While research has looked at the relationship between adolescent resilience and EBPs, current literature relatively lack a discussion of a strengths-based approach of resilience framework, nor discuss non-western sociocultural contexts. In this study, we utilized the resilience theory to examine the effects of individual mindfulness and life skills on resilience and consequently on EBPs in a group of low-income and gifted adolescents in China. A secondary data of 152 adolescents from a specialized school for low-income and gifted students in Guangzhou, China was used for the analysis. The findings from structural equation modeling indicated that mindfulness and life skills were associated with heightened resilience and reduced EBPs. In addition, resilience reduced EBPs for this group of adolescents. These findings underscore the promise of mindfulness and life skills training on increasing resilience and reducing EBPs in gifted adolescents.