Terminal cytokinesis events uncovered after an RNAi screen

Small RAB GTPases Regulate Multiple Steps of Mitosis

GTPases of the RAB family are key regulators of multiple steps of membrane trafficking. Several members of the RAB GTPase family have been implicated in mitotic progression. In this review, we will first focus on the function of endosome-associated RAB GTPases reported in early steps of mitosis, spindle pole maturation, and during cytokinesis. Second, we will discuss the role of Golgi-associated RAB GTPases at the metaphase/anaphase transition and during cytokinesis.

Regulation of midbody formation and function by mitotic kinases

Cytokinesis is the final phase of cell division and safeguards the correct distribution of genomic and cytoplasmic materials between the two nascent daughter cells. The final separation, or abscission, of the daughter cells depends on the proper assembly of an organelle at the intercellular bridge, the midbody, which acts as a platform for the recruitment and organisation of various proteins involved in both the control and execution of the abscission process. Recent studies have led to the identification of the mechanisms, signalling pathways and molecules that control the two tightly linked processes of midbody formation and abscission. Here we review our current knowledge of the role that mitotic kinases play in these processes and offer our perspectives on the potential future challenges that await researchers in the field.

Rop, the Sec1/Munc18 homolog in Drosophila, is required for furrow ingression and stable cell shape during cytokinesis

Physically separating daughter cells during cytokinesis requires contraction of an actin-myosin ring and vesicle-mediated membrane addition at the cleavage furrow. To identify vesicle trafficking proteins that function in cytokinesis, we screened deficiencies and mutations of candidate genes by live imaging the mitotic domains of the Drosophila embryo. In embryos homozygous for some of these deficiencies, we observed several cytokinesis phenotypes, including slow furrow ingression and increased membrane blebbing. We also found that cytokinesis required the Sec1/Munc18 homolog Rop, which interacts with syntaxin and mediates exocytosis at the plasma membrane. In a temperature-sensitive Rop mutant (Rop(TS)), the contractile ring disassembled during furrow ingression, indicating that maintenance of the ring required vesicle addition. Furthermore, in some dividing Rop(TS) cells, the shape of the daughter cells became unstable, causing cytokinesis failure. These results further highlight the importance of vesicle trafficking in animal cytokinesis and show that vesicle fusion influences cell shape during cytokinesis.

Tissue-specific control of midbody microtubule stability by Citron kinase through modulation of TUBB3 phosphorylation

Cytokinesis, the physical separation of daughter cells at the end of cell cycle, is commonly considered a highly stereotyped phenomenon. However, in some specialized cells this process may involve specific molecular events that are still largely unknown. In mammals, loss of Citron-kinase (CIT-K) leads to massive cytokinesis failure and apoptosis only in neuronal progenitors and in male germ cells, resulting in severe microcephaly and testicular hypoplasia, but the reasons for this specificity are unknown. In this report we show that CIT-K modulates the stability of midbody microtubules and that the expression of tubulin β-III (TUBB3) is crucial for this phenotype. We observed that TUBB3 is expressed in proliferating CNS progenitors, with a pattern correlating with the susceptibility to CIT-K loss. More importantly, depletion of TUBB3 in CIT-K-dependent cells makes them resistant to CIT-K loss, whereas TUBB3 overexpression increases their sensitivity to CIT-K knockdown. The loss of CIT-K leads to a strong decrease in the phosphorylation of S444 on TUBB3, a post-translational modification associated with microtubule stabilization. CIT-K may promote this event by interacting with TUBB3 and by recruiting at the midbody casein kinase-2α (CK2α) that has previously been reported to phosphorylate the S444 residue. Indeed, CK2α is lost from the midbody in CIT-K-depleted cells. Moreover, expression of the nonphosphorylatable TUBB3 mutant S444A induces cytokinesis failure, whereas expression of the phospho-mimetic mutant S444D rescues the cytokinesis failure induced by both CIT-K and CK2α loss. Altogether, our findings reveal that expression of relatively low levels of TUBB3 in mitotic cells can be detrimental for their cytokinesis and underscore the importance of CIT-K in counteracting this event.

F-actin binding protein, anillin, regulates integrity of intercellular junctions in human epithelial cells

Tight junctions (TJ) and adherens junctions (AJ) are key morphological features of differentiated epithelial cells that regulate the integrity and permeability of tissue barriers. Structure and remodeling of epithelial junctions depends on their association with the underlying actomyosin cytoskeleton. Anillin is a unique scaffolding protein interacting with different cytoskeletal components, including actin filaments and myosin motors. Its role in the regulation of mammalian epithelial junctions remains unexplored. Downregulation of anillin expression in human prostate, colonic, and lung epithelial cells triggered AJ and TJ disassembly without altering the expression of junctional proteins. This junctional disassembly was accompanied by dramatic disorganization of the perijunctional actomyosin belt; while the general architecture of the actin cytoskeleton, and activation status of non-muscle myosin II, remained unchanged. Furthermore, loss of anillin disrupted the adducin-spectrin membrane skeleton at the areas of cell-cell contact, selectively decreased γ-adducin expression, and induced cytoplasmic aggregation of αII-spectrin. Anillin knockdown activated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and JNK inhibition restored AJ and TJ integrity and cytoskeletal organization in anillin-depleted cells. These findings suggest a novel role for anillin in regulating intercellular adhesion in model human epithelia by mechanisms involving the suppression of JNK activity and controlling the assembly of the perijunctional cytoskeleton.

Cytokinesis in animal cells

Cell division ends with the physical separation of the two daughter cells, a process known as cytokinesis. This final event ensures that nuclear and cytoplasmic contents are accurately partitioned between the two nascent cells. Cytokinesis is one of the most dramatic changes in cell shape and requires an extensive reorganization of the cell's cytoskeleton. Here, we describe the cytoskeletal structures, factors, and signaling pathways that orchestrate this robust and yet highly dynamic process in animal cells. Finally, we discuss possible future directions in this growing area of cell division research and its implications in human diseases, including cancer.

Phosphoinositides: Lipids with informative heads and mastermind functions in cell division

Phosphoinositides are low abundant but essential phospholipids in eukaryotic cells and refer to phosphatidylinositol and its seven polyphospho-derivatives. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge on phosphoinositides in multiple aspects of cell division in animal cells, including mitotic cell rounding, longitudinal cell elongation, cytokinesis furrow ingression, intercellular bridge abscission and post-cytokinesis events. PtdIns(4,5)P₂production plays critical roles in spindle orientation, mitotic cell shape and bridge stability after furrow ingression by recruiting force generator complexes and numerous cytoskeleton binding proteins. Later, PtdIns(4,5)P₂hydrolysis and PtdIns3P production are essential for normal cytokinesis abscission. Finally, emerging functions of PtdIns3P and likely PtdIns(4,5)P₂have recently been reported for midbody remnant clearance after abscission. We describe how the multiple functions of phosphoinositides in cell division reflect their distinct roles in local recruitment of protein complexes, membrane traffic and cytoskeleton remodeling. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

Rho-guanine nucleotide exchange factors during development: Force is nothing without control

The development of multicellular organisms is associated with extensive rearrangements of tissues and cell sheets. The driving force for these rearrangements is generated mostly by the actin cytoskeleton. In order to permit the reproducible development of a specific body plan, dynamic reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton must be precisely coordinated in space and time. GTP-exchange factors that activate small GTPases of the Rho family play an important role in this process. Here we review the role of this class of cytoskeletal regulators during important developmental processes such as epithelial morphogenesis, cytokinesis, cell migration, cell polarity, neuronal growth cone extension and phagocytosis in different model systems.

Cytokinesis in Drosophila male meiosis

Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm and the duplicated genome into two daughter cells at the end of cell division. This process must be finely regulated to maintain ploidy and prevent tumor formation. Drosophila male meiosis provides an excellent cell system for investigating cytokinesis. Mutants affecting this process can be easily identified and spermatocytes are large cells particularly suitable for cytological analysis of cytokinetic structures. Over the past decade, the powerful tools of Drosophila genetics and the unique characteristics of this cell system have led researchers to identify molecular players of the cell cleavage machinery and to address important open questions. Although spermatocyte cytokinesis is incomplete, resulting in formation of stable intercellular bridges, the molecular mechanisms are largely conserved in somatic cells. Thus, studies of Drosophila male meiosis will shed new light on the complex cell circuits regulating furrow ingression and substantially further our knowledge of cancer and other human diseases.

The actin regulators Enabled and Diaphanous direct distinct protrusive behaviors in different tissues during Drosophila development

Actin-based protrusions are important for signaling and migration during development and homeostasis. Gain- and loss-of-function and quantitative approaches are used to define differential roles for the actin elongation factors Diaphanous and Enabled in regulating distinct protrusive behaviors in different tissues during Drosophila morphogenesis.

Actin-based protrusions are important for signaling and migration during development and homeostasis. Defining how different tissues in vivo craft diverse protrusive behaviors using the same genomic toolkit of actin regulators is a current challenge. The actin elongation factors Diaphanous and Enabled both promote barbed-end actin polymerization and can stimulate filopodia in cultured cells. However, redundancy in mammals and Diaphanous’ role in cytokinesis limited analysis of whether and how they regulate protrusions during development. We used two tissues driving Drosophila dorsal closure—migratory leading-edge (LE) and nonmigratory amnioserosal (AS) cells—as models to define how cells shape distinct protrusions during morphogenesis. We found that nonmigratory AS cells produce filopodia that are morphologically and dynamically distinct from those of LE cells. We hypothesized that differing Enabled and/or Diaphanous activity drives these differences. Combining gain- and loss-of-function with quantitative approaches revealed that Diaphanous and Enabled each regulate filopodial behavior in vivo and defined a quantitative “fingerprint”—the protrusive profile—which our data suggest is characteristic of each actin regulator. Our data suggest that LE protrusiveness is primarily Enabled driven, whereas Diaphanous plays the primary role in the AS, and reveal each has roles in dorsal closure, but its robustness ensures timely completion in their absence.

Engulfment of the midbody remnant after cytokinesis in mammalian cells

The midbody remnant (MBR) that is generated after cytokinetic abscission has recently attracted a lot of attention, because it might have crucial consequences for cell differentiation and tumorigenesis in mammalian cells. In these cells, it has been reported that the MBR is either released into the extracellular medium or retracted into one of the two daughter cells where it can be degraded by autophagy. Here, we describe a major alternative pathway in a variety of human and mouse immortalized cells, cancer cells and primary stem cells. Using correlative light and scanning electron microscopy and quantitative assays, we found that sequential abscissions on both sides of the midbody generate free MBRs, which are tightly associated with the cell surface through a Ca(2+)/Mg(2+)-dependent receptor. Surprisingly, MBRs move over the cell surface for several hours, before being eventually engulfed by an actin-dependent phagocytosis-like mechanism. Mathematical modeling combined with experimentation further demonstrates that lysosomal activities fully account for the clearance of MBRs after engulfment. This study changes our understanding of how MBRs are inherited and degraded in mammalian cells and suggests a mechanism by which MBRs might signal over long distances between cells.

Orbit/CLASP is required for myosin accumulation at the cleavage furrow in Drosophila male meiosis

Peripheral microtubules (MTs) near the cell cortex are essential for the positioning and continuous constriction of the contractile ring (CR) in cytokinesis. Time-lapse observations of Drosophila male meiosis showed that myosin II was first recruited along the cell cortex independent of MTs. Then, shortly after peripheral MTs made contact with the equatorial cortex, myosin II was concentrated there in a narrow band. After MT contact, anillin and F-actin abruptly appeared on the equatorial cortex, simultaneously with myosin accumulation. We found that the accumulation of myosin did not require centralspindlin, but was instead dependent on Orbit, a Drosophila ortholog of the MT plus-end tracking protein CLASP. This protein is required for stabilization of central spindle MTs, which are essential for cytokinesis. Orbit was also localized in a mid-zone of peripheral MTs, and was concentrated in a ring at the equatorial cortex during late anaphase. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer experiments indicated that Orbit is closely associated with F-actin in the CR. We also showed that the myosin heavy chain was in close proximity with Orbit in the cleavage furrow region. Centralspindlin was dispensable in Orbit ring formation. Instead, the Polo-KLP3A/Feo complex was required for the Orbit accumulation independently of the Orbit MT-binding domain. However, orbit mutations of consensus sites for the phosphorylation of Cdk1 or Polo did not influence the Orbit accumulation, suggesting an indirect regulatory role of these protein kinases in Orbit localization. Orbit was also necessary for the maintenance of the CR. Our data suggest that Orbit plays an essential role as a connector between MTs and the CR in Drosophila male meiosis.

Anillin-dependent organization of septin filaments promotes intercellular bridge elongation and Chmp4B targeting to the abscission site

The final step of cytokinesis is abscission when the intercellular bridge (ICB) linking the two new daughter cells is broken. Correct construction of the ICB is crucial for the assembly of factors involved in abscission, a failure in which results in aneuploidy. Using live imaging and subdiffraction microscopy, we identify new anillin–septin cytoskeleton-dependent stages in ICB formation and maturation. We show that after the formation of an initial ICB, septin filaments drive ICB elongation during which tubules containing anillin–septin rings are extruded from the ICB. Septins then generate sites of further constriction within the mature ICB from which they are subsequently removed. The action of the anillin–septin complex during ICB maturation also primes the ICB for the future assembly of the ESCRT III component Chmp4B at the abscission site. These studies suggest that the sequential action of distinct contractile machineries coordinates the formation of the abscission site and the successful completion of cytokinesis.

Cell cycle: proteomics gives it a spin

The eukaryotic cell division cycle has been studied at the molecular level for over 30 years, most fruitfully in model organisms. In the past 5 years, developments in mass spectrometry-based proteomics have been applied to the study of protein interactions and post-translational modifications involving key cell cycle regulators such as cyclin-dependent kinases and the anaphase-promoting complex, as well as effectors such as centrosomes, the kinetochore and DNA replication forks. In addition, innovations in chemical biology, functional proteomics and bioinformatics have been employed to study the cell cycle at the proteome level. This review surveys the contributions of proteomics to cell cycle research. The near future should see the application of more quantitative proteomic approaches to probe the dynamic aspects of the molecular system that underlie the cell cycle in model organisms and in human cells.

Opposing actions of septins and Sticky on Anillin promote the transition from contractile to midbody ring

During cytokinesis, closure of the actomyosin contractile ring (CR) is coupled to the formation of a midbody ring (MR), through poorly understood mechanisms. Using time-lapse microscopy of Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells, we show that the transition from the CR to the MR proceeds via a previously uncharacterized maturation process that requires opposing mechanisms of removal and retention of the scaffold protein Anillin. The septin cytoskeleton acts on the C terminus of Anillin to locally trim away excess membrane from the late CR/nascent MR via internalization, extrusion, and shedding, whereas the citron kinase Sticky acts on the N terminus of Anillin to retain it at the mature MR. Simultaneous depletion of septins and Sticky not only disrupted MR formation but also caused earlier CR oscillations, uncovering redundant mechanisms of CR stability that can partly explain the essential role of Anillin in this process. Our findings highlight the relatedness of the CR and MR and suggest that membrane removal is coordinated with CR disassembly.

A multicellular view of cytokinesis in epithelial tissue

The study of cytokinesis in single-cell systems provided a wealth of knowledge on the molecular and biophysical mechanisms controlling daughter cell separation. In this review, we outline recent advances in the understanding of cytokinesis in epithelial tissues. These findings provide evidence for how the cytokinetic machinery adapts to a multicellular context and how the cytokinetic machinery is itself exploited by the tissue for the preservation of tissue function and architecture during proliferation. We propose that cytokinesis in epithelia should be viewed as a multicellular process, whereby the biochemical and mechanical interactions between the dividing cell and its neighbors are essential for successful daughter cell separation while defining epithelial tissue organization and preserving tissue integrity.

Arnaud Echard: adieu, ma soeur. Interview by Caitlin Sedwick

Echard studies membrane trafficking and the cytoskeleton, with a focus on cytokinesis.

Profiling of the mammalian mitotic spindle proteome reveals an ER protein, OSTD-1, as being necessary for cell division and ER morphology

Cell division is important for many cellular processes including cell growth, reproduction, wound healing and stem cell renewal. Failures in cell division can often lead to tumors and birth defects. To identify factors necessary for this process, we implemented a comparative profiling strategy of the published mitotic spindle proteome from our laboratory. Of the candidate mammalian proteins, we determined that 77% had orthologs in Caenorhabditis elegans and 18% were associated with human disease. Of the C. elegans candidates (n=146), we determined that 34 genes functioned in embryonic development and 56% of these were predicted to be membrane trafficking proteins. A secondary, visual screen to detect distinct defects in cell division revealed 21 genes that were necessary for cytokinesis. One of these candidates, OSTD-1, an ER resident protein, was further characterized due to the aberrant cleavage furrow placement and failures in division. We determined that OSTD-1 plays a role in maintaining the dynamic morphology of the ER during the cell cycle. In addition, 65% of all ostd-1 RNAi-treated embryos failed to correctly position cleavage furrows, suggesting that proper ER morphology plays a necessary function during animal cell division.

[Temporal regulation of abscission, the last step of cell division]

Cell division is one of the most tightly controlled steps of the cell cycle. Indeed, the many steps of cell division have to be perfectly coordinated both in time and space in order to ensure an error-free division and an accurate transmission of the genome from the mother cell to the two daughter cells. Abscission, the last step of cytokinesis, consists in the severing of the intercellular bridge that connects the two daughter cells after the contraction of the acto-myosin ring. As is the case for any other step of cell division, abscission has to be precisely regulated in order to take place at the right time and the proper place. Whereas the spatial regulation of abscission is quite well understood, the study of temporal regulation is in its infancy. This review begins by describing the formation of the intercellular bridge, its organization, and its composition. Next the different models of abscission are discussed. Finally, the current understanding of the temporal regulation of abscission is detailed. In particular, I present my recent results on the role of forces exerted by the daughter cells on the intercellular bridge.

Physiological roles of Rho and Rho effectors in mammals

Rho GTPase is a master regulator controlling cytoskeleton in multiple contexts such as cell migration, adhesion and cytokinesis. Of several Rho GTPases in mammals, the best characterized is the Rho subfamily including ubiquitously expressed RhoA and its homologs RhoB and RhoC. Upon binding GTP, Rho exerts its functions through downstream Rho effectors, such as ROCK, mDia, Citron, PKN, Rhophilin and Rhotekin. Until recently, our knowledge about functions of Rho and Rho effectors came mostly from in vitro studies utilizing cultured cells, and their physiological roles in vivo were largely unknown. However, gene-targeting studies of Rho and its effectors have now unraveled their tissue- and cell-specific roles and provide deeper insight into the physiological function of Rho signaling in vivo. In this article, we briefly describe previous studies of the function of Rho and its effectors in vitro and then review and discuss recent studies on knockout mice of Rho and its effectors.

Supervillin binding to myosin II and synergism with anillin are required for cytokinesis

Cytokinesis, the process by which cytoplasm is apportioned between dividing daughter cells, requires coordination of myosin II function, membrane trafficking, and central spindle organization. Most known regulators act during late cytokinesis; a few, including the myosin II-binding proteins anillin and supervillin, act earlier. Anillin's role in scaffolding the membrane cortex with the central spindle is well established, but the mechanism of supervillin action is relatively uncharacterized. We show here that two regions within supervillin affect cell division: residues 831-1281, which bind central spindle proteins, and residues 1-170, which bind the myosin II heavy chain (MHC) and the long form of myosin light-chain kinase. MHC binding is required to rescue supervillin deficiency, and mutagenesis of this site creates a dominant-negative phenotype. Supervillin concentrates activated and total myosin II at the furrow, and simultaneous knockdown of supervillin and anillin additively increases cell division failure. Knockdown of either protein causes mislocalization of the other, and endogenous anillin increases upon supervillin knockdown. Proteomic identification of interaction partners recovered using a high-affinity green fluorescent protein nanobody suggests that supervillin and anillin regulate the myosin II and actin cortical cytoskeletons through separate pathways. We conclude that supervillin and anillin play complementary roles during vertebrate cytokinesis.

Distinct roles of Rho1, Cdc42, and Cyk3 in septum formation and abscission during yeast cytokinesis

In yeast and animal cytokinesis, the small guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) Rho1/RhoA has an established role in formation of the contractile actomyosin ring, but its role, if any, during cleavage-furrow ingression and abscission is poorly understood. Through genetic screens in yeast, we found that either activation of Rho1 or inactivation of another small GTPase, Cdc42, promoted secondary septum (SS) formation, which appeared to be responsible for abscission. Consistent with this hypothesis, a dominant-negative Rho1 inhibited SS formation but not cleavage-furrow ingression or the concomitant actomyosin ring constriction. Moreover, Rho1 is temporarily inactivated during cleavage-furrow ingression; this inactivation requires the protein Cyk3, which binds Rho1-guanosine diphosphate via its catalytically inactive transglutaminase-like domain. Thus, unlike the active transglutaminases that activate RhoA, the multidomain protein Cyk3 appears to inhibit activation of Rho1 (and thus SS formation), while simultaneously promoting cleavage-furrow ingression through primary septum formation. This work suggests a general role for the catalytically inactive transglutaminases of fungi and animals, some of which have previously been implicated in cytokinesis.

Citron kinase controls a molecular network required for midbody formation in cytokinesis

Cytokinesis partitions cytoplasmic and genomic materials at the end of cell division. Failure in this process causes polyploidy, which in turn can generate chromosomal instability, a hallmark of many cancers. Successful cytokinesis requires cooperative interaction between contractile ring and central spindle components, but how this cooperation is established is poorly understood. Here we show that Sticky (Sti), the Drosophila ortholog of the contractile ring component Citron kinase (CIT-K), interacts directly with two kinesins, Nebbish [the fly counterpart of human kinesin family member 14 (KIF14)] and Pavarotti [the Drosophila ortholog of human mitotic kinesin-like protein 1 (MKLP1)], and that in turn these kinesins interact with each other and with another central spindle protein, Fascetto [the fly ortholog of protein regulator of cytokinesis 1 (PRC1)]. Sti recruits Nebbish to the cleavage furrow, and both proteins are required for midbody formation and proper localization of Pavarotti and Fascetto. These functions require Sti kinase activity, indicating that Sti plays both structural and regulatory roles in midbody formation. Finally, we show that CIT-K's role in midbody formation is conserved in human cells. Our findings indicate that CIT-K is likely to act at the top of the midbody-formation hierarchy by connecting and regulating a molecular network of contractile ring components and microtubule-associated proteins.

Knowing when to cut and run: mechanisms that control cytokinetic abscission

Abscission, the final step of cytokinesis, mediates the severing of the membrane tether, or midbody, that connects two daughter cells. It is now recognized that abscission is a complex process requiring tight spatiotemporal regulation of its machinery to ensure equal chromosome segregation and cytoplasm content distribution between daughter cells. Failure to coordinate these events results in genetic damage. Here, we review recent evidence suggesting that proper abscission timing is coordinated by cytoskeletal rearrangements and recruitment of regulators of the Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport (ESCRT) machinery such as CEP55 and MIT-domain-containing protein 1 (MITD1) to the abscission site. Additionally, we discuss the surveillance mechanism known as the Aurora B-mediated abscission checkpoint (NoCut), which prevents genetic damage by ensuring proper abscission delay when chromatin is trapped at the midbody.

Citron kinase mediates transition from constriction to abscission through its coiled-coil domain

Cytokinesis is initiated by constriction of the cleavage furrow, and completed with separation of the two daughter cells by abscission. Control of transition from constriction to abscission is therefore crucial for cytokinesis. However, the underlying mechanism is largely unknown. Here, we analyze the role of Citron kinase (Citron-K) that localizes at the cleavage furrow and the midbody, and dissect its action mechanisms during this transition. Citron-K forms a stable ring-like structure at the midbody and its depletion affects the maintenance of the intercellular bridge, resulting in fusion of two daughter cells after the cleavage furrow ingression. RNA interference (RNAi) targeting Citron-K reduced accumulation of RhoA, Anillin, and septins at the intercellular bridge in mid telophase, and impaired concentration and maintenance of KIF14 and PRC1 at the midbody in late telophase. RNAi rescue experiments revealed that these functions of Citron-K are mediated by its coiled-coil (CC) domain, and not by its kinase domain. The C-terminal part of CC contains a Rho-binding domain and a cluster-forming region and is important for concentrating Citron-K from the cleavage furrow to the midbody. The N-terminal part of CC directly binds to KIF14, and this interaction is required for timely transfer of Citron-K to the midbody after furrow ingression. We propose that the CC-domain-mediated translocation and actions of Citron-K ensure proper stabilization of the midbody structure during the transition from constriction to abscission.

The complex containing Drosophila Myb and RB/E2F2 regulates cytokinesis in a histone H2Av-dependent manner

In Drosophila, mutation of the oncogene Myb reduced the expression of mitotic genes, such as polo and ial, and caused multiple mitotic defects, including disrupted chromosome condensation and abnormal spindles. We now show that binucleate cells, the hallmark phenotype of cytokinesis failure, accumulate in Myb-null ovarian follicle cell and wing disc epithelia. Myb functions as an activator in the generally repressive Drosophila RBF, E2F2, and Myb (dREAM)/Myb-MuvB complex. Absence of the dREAM subunit Mip130 or E2F2 suppressed the Myb-null cytokinesis defect. Therefore, we used Myb-null binucleate cells as a quantitative phenotypic readout of transcriptional repression by the dREAM complex. In the absence of Myb, the complex was sensitive to the dose of the subunits E2F2, Mip120, Caf1, and Lin-52 but not Mip130 or Mip40. Surprisingly, reduction of the dose of His2Av/H2A.z also suppressed the Myb-null binucleate cell phenotype, suggesting a novel role for this variant histone in transcriptional repression by the dREAM complex.

Phagocytosis and cytokinesis: do cells use common tools to cut and to eat? Highlights on common themes and differences

Eukaryotic cells with specialized functions often use and adapt common molecular machineries. Recent findings have highlighted that actin polymerization, contractile activity and membrane remodelling with exocytosis of internal compartments are required both for successful phagocytosis, the internalization of particulate material and for cytokinesis, the last step of cell division. Phagocytosis is induced by the triggering of specific cell surface receptors, which leads to membrane deformation, pseudopod extension and contraction to engulf particles. Cytokinesis relies on intense contractile activity and eventually leads to the physical scission of sister cells. In this review, shared features of signalling, cytoskeletal reorganization and vesicular trafficking used in both phagocytosis and cytokinesis will be described, but non-common mechanisms and questions that remain open in these dynamic areas of research are also highlighted.

Centralspindlin links the mitotic spindle to the plasma membrane during cytokinesis

At the end of cell division, cytokinesis splits the cytoplasm of nascent daughter cells and partitions segregated sister genomes. To coordinate cell division with chromosome segregation, the mitotic spindle controls cytokinetic events at the cell envelope. The spindle midzone stimulates the actomyosin-driven contraction of the cleavage furrow, which proceeds until the formation of a microtubule-rich intercellular bridge with the midbody at its centre. The midbody directs the final membrane abscission reaction and has been proposed to attach the cleavage furrow to the intercellular bridge. How the mitotic spindle is connected to the plasma membrane during cytokinesis is not understood. Here we identify a plasma membrane tethering activity in the centralspindlin protein complex, a conserved component of the spindle midzone and midbody. We demonstrate that the C1 domain of the centralspindlin subunit MgcRacGAP associates with the plasma membrane by interacting with polyanionic phosphoinositide lipids. Using X-ray crystallography we determine the structure of this atypical C1 domain. Mutations in the hydrophobic cap and in basic residues of the C1 domain of MgcRacGAP prevent association of the protein with the plasma membrane, and abrogate cytokinesis in human and chicken cells. Artificial membrane tethering of centralspindlin restores cell division in the absence of the C1 domain of MgcRacGAP. Although C1 domain function is dispensable for the formation of the midzone and midbody, it promotes contractility and is required for the attachment of the plasma membrane to the midbody, a long-postulated function of this organelle. Our analysis suggests that centralspindlin links the mitotic spindle to the plasma membrane to secure the final cut during cytokinesis in animal cells.

A novel lentivirus for quantitative assessment of gene knockdown in stem cell differentiation

Loss of gene function is a valuable tool for screening genes in cellular processes including stem cell differentiation differentiation. However, the criteria for evaluating gene knockdown are usually based on end-point analysis and real-time, dynamic information is lacking. To overcome these limitations, we engineered a shRNA encoding LentiViral Dual Promoter vector (shLVDP) that enabled real-time monitoring of mesenchymal stem (MSC) differentiation and simultaneous gene knockdown. In this vector, the activity of the alpha-smooth muscle actin (αSMA) promoter was measured by the expression of a destabilized green fluorescent protein, and was used as an indicator of myogenic differentiation; constitutive expression of discosoma red fluorescent protein was used to measure transduction efficiency and to normalize αSMA promoter activity; and shRNA was encoded by a doxycycline (Dox)-regulatable H1 promoter. Importantly, the normalized promoter activity was independent of lentivirus titer allowing quantitative assessment of gene knockdown. Using this vector, we evaluated 11 genes in the TGF-β1 or Rho signaling pathway on SMC maturation and on MSC differentiation along the myogenic lineage. As expected, knockdown of genes such as Smad2/3 or RhoA inhibited myogenic differentiation, while knocking down the myogenic differentiation inhibitor, Klf4, increased αSMA promoter activity significantly. Notably, some genes for example, Smad7 or KLF4 showed differential regulation of myogenic differentiation in MSC from different anatomic locations such as bone marrow and hair follicles. Finally, Dox-regulatable shRNA expression enabled temporal control of gene knockdown and provided dynamic information on the effect of different genes on myogenic phenotype. Our data suggests that shLVDP may be ideal for development of lentiviral microarrays to decipher gene regulatory networks of complex biological processes such as stem cell differentiation or reprogramming.

Rho GTPases in animal cell cytokinesis: an occupation by the one percent

Rho GTPases are molecular switches that elicit distinct effects on the actomyosin cytoskeleton to accurately promote cytokinesis. Although they represent less than 1% of the human genome, Rho GTPases exert disproportionate control over cell division. Crucial to this master regulatory role is their localized occupation of specific domains of the cell to ensure the assembly of a contractile ring at the proper time and place. RhoA occupies the division plane and is the central positive Rho family regulator of cytokinesis. Rac1 is a negative regulator of cytokinesis and is inactivated within the division plane while active Rac1 occupies the cell poles. Cdc42 regulation during cytokinesis is less studied, but thus far a clear role has only been shown during polar body emission. Here we review what is known about the function of Rho family GTPases during cell division, as well as their upstream regulators and known downstream cytokinetic effectors.

ELMO domains, evolutionary and functional characterization of a novel GTPase-activating protein (GAP) domain for Arf protein family GTPases

The human family of ELMO domain-containing proteins (ELMODs) consists of six members and is defined by the presence of the ELMO domain. Within this family are two subclassifications of proteins, based on primary sequence conservation, protein size, and domain architecture, deemed ELMOD and ELMO. In this study, we used homology searching and phylogenetics to identify ELMOD family homologs in genomes from across eukaryotic diversity. This demonstrated not only that the protein family is ancient but also that ELMOs are potentially restricted to the supergroup Opisthokonta (Metazoa and Fungi), whereas proteins with the ELMOD organization are found in diverse eukaryotes and thus were likely the form present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor. The segregation of the ELMO clade from the larger ELMOD group is consistent with their contrasting functions as unconventional Rac1 guanine nucleotide exchange factors and the Arf family GTPase-activating proteins, respectively. We used unbiased, phylogenetic sorting and sequence alignments to identify the most highly conserved residues within the ELMO domain to identify a putative GAP domain within the ELMODs. Three independent but complementary assays were used to provide an initial characterization of this domain. We identified a highly conserved arginine residue critical for both the biochemical and cellular GAP activity of ELMODs. We also provide initial evidence of the function of human ELMOD1 as an Arf family GAP at the Golgi. These findings provide the basis for the future study of the ELMOD family of proteins and a new avenue for the study of Arf family GTPases.

Phosphoinositides and cytokinesis: the "PIP" of the iceberg

Phosphoinositides [Phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns), phosphatidylinositol 3-monophosphate (PtdIns3P), phosphatidylinositol 4-monophosphate (PtdIns4P), phosphatidylinositol 5-monophosphate (PtdIns5P), phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate (PtdIns(3,4)P(2) ), phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(3,5)P(2) ), phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P(2) ), and phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PtdIns(3,4,5)P(3) )] are lowly abundant acidic lipids found at the cytosolic leaflet of the plasma membrane and intracellular membranes. Initially discovered as precursors of second messengers in signal transduction, phosphoinositides are now known to directly or indirectly control key cellular functions, such as cell polarity, cell migration, cell survival, cytoskeletal dynamics, and vesicular traffic. Phosphoinositides actually play a central role at the interface between membranes and cytoskeletons and contribute to the identity of the cellular compartments by recruiting specific proteins. Increasing evidence indicates that several phosphoinositides, particularly PtdIns(4,5)P(2) , are essential for cytokinesis, notably after furrow ingression. The present knowledge about the specific phosphoinositides and phosphoinositide modifying-enzymes involved in cytokinesis will be first presented. The review of the current data will then show that furrow stability and cytokinesis abscission require that both phosphoinositide production and hydrolysis are regulated in space and time. Finally, I will further discuss recent mechanistic insights on how phosphoinositides regulate membrane trafficking and cytoskeletal remodeling for successful furrow ingression and intercellular bridge abscission. This will highlight unanticipated connections between cytokinesis and enzymes implicated in human diseases, such as the Lowe syndrome.

Cytokinesis in Drosophila melanogaster

Cytokinesis is the process that physically separates two sibling cells, ensuring the proper partitioning of the nuclear and cytoplasmic contents at the end of cell division. Cytokinesis requires a fine-tuned molecular machinery that has to be assembled with high spatiotemporal precision. Drosophila melanogaster is an ideal model system to investigate this cellular process. Genetic screens performed in spermatocytes, neuroblasts, and Schneider cells revealed numerous evolutionary conserved components. These genetically amenable systems have proven to be very useful to further elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanism of cytokinesis, significantly contributing to our current understanding of this important cellular process. As in other organisms, cytokinesis is largely dependent on the mitotic spindle, providing positional cues for cleavage furrow placement and progression. However, spindle-independent mechanisms could also be important during special cases of cytokinesis, such as asymmetric cell division. Thus, powerful fly genetics combined with single-cell analysis, live imaging, and biochemical assays will continue to provide important insights into the mechanism of cytokinesis.

Cytokinesis in animal cells

Cytokinesis, the final step in cell division, partitions the contents of a single cell into two. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs through cortical remodeling orchestrated by the anaphase spindle. Cytokinesis relies on a tight interplay between signaling and cellular mechanics and has attracted the attention of both biologists and physicists for more than a century. In this review, we provide an overview of four topics in animal cell cytokinesis: (a) signaling between the anaphase spindle and cortex, (b) the mechanics of cortical remodeling, (c) abscission, and (d) regulation of cytokinesis by the cell cycle machinery. We report on recent progress in these areas and highlight some of the outstanding questions that these findings bring into focus.

A genome-wide screen identifies genes that affect somatic homolog pairing in Drosophila

In Drosophila and other Dipterans, homologous chromosomes are in close contact in virtually all nuclei, a phenomenon known as somatic homolog pairing. Although homolog pairing has been recognized for over a century, relatively little is known about its regulation. We performed a genome-wide RNAi-based screen that monitored the X-specific localization of the male-specific lethal (MSL) complex, and we identified 59 candidate genes whose knockdown via RNAi causes a change in the pattern of MSL staining that is consistent with a disruption of X-chromosomal homolog pairing. Using DNA fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), we confirmed that knockdown of 17 of these genes has a dramatic effect on pairing of the 359 bp repeat at the base of the X. Furthermore, dsRNAs targeting Pr-set7, which encodes an H4K20 methyltransferase, cause a modest disruption in somatic homolog pairing. Consistent with our results in cultured cells, a classical mutation in one of the strongest candidate genes, pebble (pbl), causes a decrease in somatic homolog pairing in developing embryos. Interestingly, many of the genes identified by our screen have known roles in diverse cell-cycle events, suggesting an important link between somatic homolog pairing and the choreography of chromosomes during the cell cycle.

Identification of genes that promote or antagonize somatic homolog pairing using a high-throughput FISH-based screen

The pairing of homologous chromosomes is a fundamental feature of the meiotic cell. In addition, a number of species exhibit homolog pairing in nonmeiotic, somatic cells as well, with evidence for its impact on both gene regulation and double-strand break (DSB) repair. An extreme example of somatic pairing can be observed in Drosophila melanogaster, where homologous chromosomes remain aligned throughout most of development. However, our understanding of the mechanism of somatic homolog pairing remains unclear, as only a few genes have been implicated in this process. In this study, we introduce a novel high-throughput fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) technology that enabled us to conduct a genome-wide RNAi screen for factors involved in the robust somatic pairing observed in Drosophila. We identified both candidate "pairing promoting genes" and candidate "anti-pairing genes," providing evidence that pairing is a dynamic process that can be both enhanced and antagonized. Many of the genes found to be important for promoting pairing are highly enriched for functions associated with mitotic cell division, suggesting a genetic framework for a long-standing link between chromosome dynamics during mitosis and nuclear organization during interphase. In contrast, several of the candidate anti-pairing genes have known interphase functions associated with S-phase progression, DNA replication, and chromatin compaction, including several components of the condensin II complex. In combination with a variety of secondary assays, these results provide insights into the mechanism and dynamics of somatic pairing.

Molecular control of animal cell cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the process by which mitotic cells physically split in two following chromosome segregation. Dividing animal cells first ingress a cytokinetic furrow and then separate the plasma membrane by abscission. The general cytological events and several conserved molecular factors involved in cytokinesis have been known for many years. However, recent progress in microscopy, chemical genetics, biochemical reconstitution and biophysical methodology has tremendously increased our understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms. We discuss how recent insights have led to refined models of the distinct steps of animal cell cytokinesis, including anaphase spindle reorganization, division plane specification, actomyosin ring assembly and contraction, and abscission. We highlight how molecular signalling pathways coordinate the individual events to ensure faithful partitioning of the genome to emerging daughter cells.

Polarity sets the stage for cytokinesis

Cell polarity is important for a number of processes, from chemotaxis to embryogenesis. Recent studies suggest a new role for polarity in the orchestration of events during the final cell separation step of cell division called abscission. Abscission shares several features with cell polarization, including rearrangement of phosphatidylinositols, reorganization of microtubules, and trafficking of exocyst-associated membranes. Here we focus on how the canonical pathways for cell polarization and cell migration may play a role in spatiotemporal membrane trafficking events required for the final stages of cytokinesis.

MNK1 kinase activity is required for abscission

MNK1 is a serine/threonine kinase identified as a target for MAP kinase pathways. Using chemical drug, kinase-dead expression or knockdown by RNA interference, we show that inhibition of MNK1 induces the formation of multinucleated cells, which can be rescued by expressing a form of MNK1 that is resistant to RNA interference. We found that the active human form of MNK1 localises to centrosomes, spindle microtubules and the midbody. Time-lapse recording of MNK1-depleted cells displays cytokinesis defects, as daughter cells fuse back together. When MNK1 activity was inhibited, no microtubule defect at the midbody was detected, however, anchorage of the membrane vesicle at the midbody was impaired as lumenal GFP-positive vesicles did not accumulate at the midbody. At the molecular level, we found that centriolin localisation was impaired at the midbody in MNK1-depleted cells. As a consequence, endobrevin - a v-SNARE protein implicated in the abscission step - was not properly localised to the midbody. Altogether, our data show that MNK1 activity is required for abscission.

Endocytosis and signaling: cell logistics shape the eukaryotic cell plan

Our understanding of endocytosis has evolved remarkably in little more than a decade. This is the result not only of advances in our knowledge of its molecular and biological workings, but also of a true paradigm shift in our understanding of what really constitutes endocytosis and of its role in homeostasis. Although endocytosis was initially discovered and studied as a relatively simple process to transport molecules across the plasma membrane, it was subsequently found to be inextricably linked with almost all aspects of cellular signaling. This led to the notion that endocytosis is actually the master organizer of cellular signaling, providing the cell with understandable messages that have been resolved in space and time. In essence, endocytosis provides the communications and supply routes (the logistics) of the cell. Although this may seem revolutionary, it is still likely to be only a small part of the entire story. A wealth of new evidence is uncovering the surprisingly pervasive nature of endocytosis in essentially all aspects of cellular regulation. In addition, many newly discovered functions of endocytic proteins are not immediately interpretable within the classical view of endocytosis. A possible framework, to rationalize all this new knowledge, requires us to "upgrade" our vision of endocytosis. By combining the analysis of biochemical, biological, and evolutionary evidence, we propose herein that endocytosis constitutes one of the major enabling conditions that in the history of life permitted the development of a higher level of organization, leading to the actuation of the eukaryotic cell plan.

Novel regulators of planar cell polarity: a genetic analysis in Drosophila

Planar cell polarity (PCP) is a common feature of many epithelia and epithelial organs. Although progress has been made in the dissection of molecular mechanisms regulating PCP, many questions remain. Here we describe a screen to identify novel PCP regulators in Drosophila. We employed mild gain-of-function (GOF) phenotypes of two cytoplasmic Frizzled (Fz)/PCP core components, Diego (Dgo) and Prickle (Pk), and screened these against the DrosDel genome-wide deficiency collection for dominant modifiers. Positive genomic regions were rescreened and narrowed down with smaller overlapping deficiencies from the Exelixis collection and RNAi-mediated knockdown applied to individual genes. This approach isolated new regulators of PCP, which were confirmed with loss-of-function analyses displaying PCP defects in the eye and/or wing. Furthermore, knockdown of a subset was also sensitive to dgo dosage or dominantly modified a dishevelled (dsh) GOF phenotype, supporting a role in Fz/PCP-mediated polarity establishment. Among the new "PCP" genes we identified several kinases, enzymes required for lipid modification, scaffolding proteins, and genes involved in substrate modification and/or degradation. Interestingly, one of them is a member of the Meckel-Gruber syndrome factors, associated with human ciliopathies, suggesting an important role for cell polarity in nonciliated cells.

Clathrin is required for Scar/Wave-mediated lamellipodium formation

The Scar/Wave complex (SWC) generates lamellipodia through Arp2/3-dependent polymerisation of branched actin networks. In order to identify new SWC regulators, we conducted a screen in Drosophila cells combining proteomics with functional genomics. This screen identified Clathrin heavy chain (CHC) as a protein that binds to the SWC and whose depletion affects lamellipodium formation. This role of CHC in lamellipodium formation can be uncoupled from its role in membrane trafficking by several experimental approaches. Furthermore, CHC is detected in lamellipodia in the absence of the adaptor and accessory proteins of endocytosis. We found that CHC overexpression decreased membrane recruitment of the SWC, resulting in reduced velocity of protrusions and reduced cell migration. By contrast, when CHC was targeted to the membrane by fusion to a myristoylation sequence, we observed an increase in membrane recruitment of the SWC, protrusion velocity and cell migration. Together these data suggest that, in addition to its classical role in membrane trafficking, CHC brings the SWC to the plasma membrane, thereby controlling lamellipodium formation.

Sticky/Citron kinase maintains proper RhoA localization at the cleavage site during cytokinesis

In many organisms, the small guanosine triphosphatase RhoA controls assembly and contraction of the actomyosin ring during cytokinesis by activating different effectors. Although the role of some RhoA effectors like formins and Rho kinase is reasonably understood, the functions of another putative effector, Citron kinase (CIT-K), are still debated. In this paper, we show that, contrary to previous models, the Drosophila melanogaster CIT-K orthologue Sticky (Sti) does not require interaction with RhoA to localize to the cleavage site. Instead, RhoA fails to form a compact ring in late cytokinesis after Sti depletion, and this function requires Sti kinase activity. Moreover, we found that the Sti Citron-Nik1 homology domain interacts with RhoA regardless of its status, indicating that Sti is not a canonical RhoA effector. Finally, Sti depletion caused an increase of phosphorylated myosin regulatory light chain at the cleavage site in late cytokinesis. We propose that Sti/CIT-K maintains correct RhoA localization at the cleavage site, which is necessary for proper RhoA activity and contractile ring dynamics.

p27(Kip1) controls cytokinesis via the regulation of citron kinase activation

p27(Kip1) (p27) acts as a tumor suppressor by inhibiting cyclin-cyclin-dependent kinase (cyclin-CDK) activity. However, mice expressing a form of p27 that is unable to bind or inhibit cyclin-CDK complexes (p27(CK-)) have increased incidence of tumor development as compared with wild-type and p27(-/-) mice, revealing an oncogenic role for p27. Here, we identified a phenotype of multinucleation and polyploidy in p27(CK-) mice not present in p27(-/-) animals, suggesting a role for p27 in G2/M that is independent of cyclin-CDK regulation. Further analysis revealed that p27(CK-) expression caused a cytokinesis and abscission defect in mouse embryonic fibroblasts. We identified the Rho effector citron kinase (citron-K) as a p27-interacting protein in vitro and in vivo and found that p27 and citron-K colocalized at the contractile ring and mid-body during telophase and cytokinesis. Moreover, overexpression of the minimal p27-binding domain of citron-K was sufficient to rescue the phenotype caused by p27(CK-). Conversely, expression of a mutant p27(CK-) unable to bind citron-K did not induce multinucleation. Finally, by binding to citron-K, p27 prevented the interaction of citron-K with its activator RhoA. Taken together, these data suggest a role for p27 during cytokinesis via the regulation of citron-K activity.

Comparative RNAi screening identifies a conserved core metazoan actinome by phenotype

RNAi screens in Drosophila and human cells for novel actin regulators revealed conserved roles for proteins involved in nuclear actin export, RNA splicing, and ubiquitination.

Although a large number of actin-binding proteins and their regulators have been identified through classical approaches, gaps in our knowledge remain. Here, we used genome-wide RNA interference as a systematic method to define metazoan actin regulators based on visual phenotype. Using comparative screens in cultured Drosophila and human cells, we generated phenotypic profiles for annotated actin regulators together with proteins bearing predicted actin-binding domains. These phenotypic clusters for the known metazoan “actinome” were used to identify putative new core actin regulators, together with a number of genes with conserved but poorly studied roles in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, several of which we studied in detail. This work suggests that although our search for new components of the core actin machinery is nearing saturation, regulation at the level of nuclear actin export, RNA splicing, ubiquitination, and other upstream processes remains an important but unexplored frontier of actin biology.

An ARF6/Rab35 GTPase cascade for endocytic recycling and successful cytokinesis

Cytokinesis bridge instability leads to binucleated cells that can promote tumorigenesis in vivo. Membrane trafficking is crucial for animal cell cytokinesis, and several endocytic pathways regulated by distinct GTPases (Rab11, Rab21, Rab35, ARF6, RalA/B) contribute to the postfurrowing steps of cytokinesis. However, little is known about how these pathways are coordinated for successful cytokinesis. The Rab35 GTPase controls a fast endocytic recycling pathway and must be activated for SEPTIN cytoskeleton localization at the intercellular bridge, and thus for completion of cytokinesis. Here, we report that the ARF6 GTPase negatively regulates Rab35 activation and hence the Rab35 pathway. Human cells expressing a constitutively activated, GTP-bound ARF6 mutant display identical endocytic recycling and cytokinesis defects as those observed upon overexpression of the inactivated, GDP-bound Rab35 mutant. As a molecular mechanism, we identified the Rab35 GAP EPI64B as an effector of ARF6 in negatively regulating Rab35 activation. Unexpectedly, this regulation takes place at clathrin-coated pits, and activated ARF6 reduces Rab35 loading into the endocytic pathway. Thus, an effector of an ARF protein is a GAP for a downstream Rab protein, and we propose that this hierarchical ARF/Rab GTPase cascade controls the proper activation of a common endocytic pathway essential for cytokinesis.

Anillin acts as a bifunctional linker coordinating midbody ring biogenesis during cytokinesis

Animal cell cytokinesis proceeds via constriction of an actomyosin-based contractile ring (CR) [1, 2]. Upon reaching a diameter of ~1 μm [3], a midbody ring (MR) forms to stabilize the intercellular bridge until abscission [4-6]. How MR formation is coupled to CR closure and how plasma membrane anchoring is maintained at this key transition is unknown. Time-lapse microscopy of Drosophila S2 cells depleted of the scaffold protein Anillin [7-9] revealed that Anillin is required for complete closure of the CR and formation of the MR. Truncation analysis revealed that Anillin N termini connected with the actomyosin CR and supported formation of stable MR-like structures, but these could not maintain anchoring of the plasma membrane. Conversely, Anillin C termini failed to connect with the CR or MR but recruited the septin Peanut to ectopic structures at the equatorial cortex. Peanut depletion mimicked truncation of the Anillin C terminus, resulting in MR-like structures that failed to anchor the membrane. These data demonstrate that Anillin coordinates the transition from CR to MR and that it does so by linking two distinct cortical cytoskeletal elements. One apparently acts as the core structural template for MR assembly, while the other ensures stable anchoring of the plasma membrane beyond the CR stage.