A pair of centromeric proteins mediates reproductive isolation in Drosophila species

Identification of novel Drosophila centromere-associated proteins

Centromeres are chromosomal regions crucial for correct chromosome segregation during mitosis and meiosis. They are epigenetically defined by centromeric proteins such as the centromere-specific histone H3-variant centromere protein A (CENP-A). In humans, 16 additional proteins have been described to be constitutively associated with centromeres throughout the cell cycle, known as the constitutive centromere-associated network (CCAN). In contrast, only one additional constitutive centromeric protein is known in Drosophila melanogaster (D.mel), the conserved CCAN member CENP-C. To gain further insights into D.mel centromere composition and biology, we analyzed affinity-purified chromatin prepared from D.mel cell lines expressing green fluorescent protein tagged histone three variants by MS. In addition to already-known centromeric proteins, we identified novel factors that were repeatedly enriched in affinity purification-MS experiments. We analyzed the cellular localization of selected candidates by immunocytochemistry and confirmed localization to the centromere and other genomic regions for ten factors. Furthermore, RNA interference mediated depletion of CG2051, CG14480, and hyperplastic discs, three of our strongest candidates, leads to elevated mitotic defects. Knockdowns of these candidates neither impair the localization of several known kinetochore proteins nor CENP-A(CID) loading, suggesting their involvement in alternative pathways that contribute to proper centromere function. In summary, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the proteomic composition of Drosophila centromeres. All MS data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD000758 (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD000758).

Limited gene misregulation is exacerbated by allele-specific upregulation in lethal hybrids between Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans

Misregulation of gene expression is often observed in interspecific hybrids and is generally attributed to regulatory incompatibilities caused by divergence between the two genomes. However, it has been challenging to distinguish effects of regulatory divergence from secondary effects including developmental and physiological defects common to hybrids. Here, we use RNA-Seq to profile gene expression in F1 hybrid male larvae from crosses of Drosophila melanogaster to its sibling species D. simulans. We analyze lethal and viable hybrid males, the latter produced using a mutation in the X-linked D. melanogaster Hybrid male rescue (Hmr) gene and compare them with their parental species and to public data sets of gene expression across development. We find that Hmr has drastically different effects on the parental and hybrid genomes, demonstrating that hybrid incompatibility genes can exhibit novel properties in the hybrid genetic background. Additionally, we find that D. melanogaster alleles are preferentially affected between lethal and viable hybrids. We further determine that many of the differences between the hybrids result from developmental delay in the Hmr(+) hybrids. Finally, we find surprisingly modest expression differences in hybrids when compared with the parents, with only 9% and 4% of genes deviating from additivity or expressed outside of the parental range, respectively. Most of these differences can be attributed to developmental delay and differences in tissue types. Overall, our study suggests that hybrid gene misexpression is prone to overestimation and that even between species separated by approximately 2.5 Ma, regulatory incompatibilities are not widespread in hybrids.

The Hmr and Lhr hybrid incompatibility genes suppress a broad range of heterochromatic repeats

Hybrid incompatibilities (HIs) cause reproductive isolation between species and thus contribute to speciation. Several HI genes encode adaptively evolving proteins that localize to or interact with heterochromatin, suggesting that HIs may result from co-evolution with rapidly evolving heterochromatic DNA. Little is known, however, about the intraspecific function of these HI genes, the specific sequences they interact with, or the evolutionary forces that drive their divergence. The genes Hmr and Lhr genetically interact to cause hybrid lethality between Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans, yet mutations in both genes are viable. Here, we report that Hmr and Lhr encode proteins that form a heterochromatic complex with Heterochromatin Protein 1 (HP1a). Using RNA-Seq analyses we discovered that Hmr and Lhr are required to repress transcripts from satellite DNAs and many families of transposable elements (TEs). By comparing Hmr and Lhr function between D. melanogaster and D. simulans we identify several satellite DNAs and TEs that are differentially regulated between the species. Hmr and Lhr mutations also cause massive overexpression of telomeric TEs and significant telomere lengthening. Hmr and Lhr therefore regulate three types of heterochromatic sequences that are responsible for the significant differences in genome size and structure between D. melanogaster and D. simulans and have high potential to cause genetic conflicts with host fitness. We further find that many TEs are overexpressed in hybrids but that those specifically mis-expressed in lethal hybrids do not closely correlate with Hmr function. Our results therefore argue that adaptive divergence of heterochromatin proteins in response to repetitive DNAs is an important underlying force driving the evolution of hybrid incompatibility genes, but that hybrid lethality likely results from novel epistatic genetic interactions that are distinct to the hybrid background.

Sister species capable of mating often produce hybrids that are sterile or die during development. This reproductive isolation is caused by incompatibilities between the two sister species' genomes. Some hybrid incompatibilities involve genes that encode rapidly evolving proteins that localize to heterochromatin. Heterochromatin is largely made up of highly repetitive transposable elements and satellite DNAs. It has been hypothesized that rapid changes in heterochromatic DNA drives the changes in these HI genes and thus the evolution of reproductive isolation. In support of this model, we show that two rapidly evolving HI proteins, Lhr and Hmr, which reproductively isolate the fruit fly sister species D. melanogaster and D. simulans, repress transposable elements and satellite DNAs. These proteins also help regulate the length of the atypical Drosophila telomeres, which are themselves made of domesticated transposable elements. Our data suggest that these proteins are part of the adaptive machinery that allows the host to respond to changes and increases in heterochromatin and to maintain the activity of genes located within or adjacent to heterochromatin.

Speciation mediated by centromeres

Speciation accompanies reproductive isolation in natural populations through hybrid sterility or lethality. However, the molecular bases of hybrid lethality are mysterious. In this issue of Developmental Cell, Thomae et al. (2013) demonstrate that Drosophila speciation factors HMR and LHR form a centromeric complex and that increased dosage causes hybrid lethality.