Protective effects of rosuvastatin and vitamin E against fipronil-mediated oxidative damage and apoptosis in rat liver and kidney

Thermal stress accelerates mercury chloride toxicity in Oreochromis niloticus via up-regulation of mercury bioaccumulation and HSP70 mRNA expression

Mercury (Hg) is an environmental pollutant that threatens aquatic life. Many environmental factors, including water temperature, are reported to influence the toxicity of dissolved chemicals in the aquatic ecosystem. Therefore, we investigated the impact of thermal stress on Hg-induced subchronic toxicity in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Fish were randomly allocated into five groups. Group I served as the control and kept at 25 °C. Groups II, III, IV, and V were reared at 25, 28, 31, and 34 °C, respectively, and co-exposed to HgCl₂ (1/10 LC₅₀) for 42 days. Blood and tissue samples were collected after 21 and 42 days. All HgCl₂-exposed groups exhibited significant elevations in serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), urea, and creatinine, along with decreases in the serum total protein and albumin. In addition, marked reductions in antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSPx), were observed. Remarkable increases in Hg tissue concentrations were detected along with increases in heat shock protein (HSP) 70 mRNA expression. Interestingly, the patterns data that were recorded were more coincident with the water temperature than the period of exposure. In conclusion, water temperature and exposure period are two crucial factors modulating HgCl₂-induced toxicity and bioaccumulation in Nile tilapia. Our findings provide new insights concerning the impact of thermal stress as an environmental factor on Hg toxicity and bioaccumulation in Nile tilapia and, in turn, on fish and fish consumer health.

Kolaviron Diminishes Diclofenac-Induced Liver and Kidney Toxicity in Wistar Rats Via Suppressing Inflammatory Events, Upregulating Antioxidant Defenses, and Improving Hematological Indices

Diclofenac (DF) is widely used in the treatment of pain and fever. Despite it therapeutic benefits, it triggered hepatorenal injury. Thus, the present study investigated the protective roles of kolaviron (KV) against DF-induced hepatic and renal toxicity in rats. The rats were allotted into groups: control group received propylene glycol and treatment groups received DF, which induced hepatorenal toxicity in rats and different doses of KV that prevented systemic toxicity of DF in rats. Twenty-four hours after the last treatment, all the rats were killed. Pro-inflammatory levels, markers of liver and kidney functions, oxidative stress, hematological indices, and histopathological alterations were evaluated. Diclofenac caused significant increase in the plasma levels of creatinine and urea and activities of liver enzymes, including bilirubin level, pro-inflammatory markers, and plasma prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂). It also caused significant alteration in renal and hepatic PGE₂, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde), and hematological indices. These toxic effects were confirmed by histological studies and levels of inflammatory infiltration (myeloperoxidase). However, KV significantly prevented or reduced the adverse effects of DF in the plasma, liver, and kidney of the rats pretreated with KV before DF administration. This study showed the efficacy of KV as hepatic and renal protector in DF-induced hepatorenal toxicity through reduction of oxidative stress and suppression of inflammation.

Oxidative stress, hematological and biochemical alterations induced by sub-acute exposure to fipronil (COACH®) in albino mice and ameliorative effect of selenium plus vitamin E

Fipronil (FIP) is a highly effective, broad-use insecticide that belongs to the phenylpyrazole chemical group. It is extensively used in the agriculture and veterinary medicine for controlling a wide variety of pests. Though FIP showed lower toxicity in vertebrates than in insects, it was recognized to have a variety of toxic effects in mammals. The present study was undertaken to evaluate FIP-induced alterations in the blood biochemical markers and oxidative stress parameters in male albino mice via oral sub-acute toxicity exposure. The possible ameliorative effect of the pretreatment with selenium plus α-tocopherol (vitamin E) against the harmful effects of FIP was also investigated. Mice in FIP-test groups were exposed to different sublethal doses, i.e., 1.43, 2.87, and 4.78 mg active ingredient (AI)/kg body weight (b.w.), equal to 1/100, 1/50, and 1/30 LD₅₀ of FIP, respectively, for 28 days. Mice in the amelioration groups were orally administered with selenium + vitamin E (0.3 mg + 22.5 mg/kg b.w., respectively) 14 days prior to exposure to the higher dose (4.78 mg/kg) of FIP for another 14 days. Fipronil exposure at medium and high doses showed lowered values of red blood cell count (RBC), hematocrit (HCT), hemoglobin (HGB), white blood cell (WBC), and platelet (PLT) counts after 28-day exposure, compared to the control. All three doses caused significant increases in levels of liver-function biomarkers, i.e., aspartate amino transaminase (AST), alanine amino transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), cholesterol, and bilirubin levels compared to the control. Levels of biomarkers related to kidney functions, i.e., urea, uric acid, and creatinine, increased significantly than these of the control. Likewise, the oxidative stress indices, i.e., hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and malondialdehyde (MDA), significantly increased at the higher and medium doses, while antioxidant enzymes, catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), decreased significantly. On the other hand, prior administration of selenium + vitamin E in the FIP-exposed mice led to restore values of most hematological parameters nearly to these of the control. Also, the levels of AST, total protein, and creatinine seemed to be restored to the control values. Interestingly, pretreatment with selenium + vitamin E restored the levels of antioxidant enzymes, CAT and SOD, to the control values, whereas, oxidative stress indices, H₂O₂ and MDA, remained significantly high. It is our thought that the sublethal dose less than 1.43 mg/kg b.w. of commercial formulation of FIP (COACH^® 200 SC) could be considered as no-observed-adverse-effect-level(NOAEL) under our present experimental conditions at short-term toxicity study. On the other hand, the higher sublethal doses, 4.78 and 2.87 mg/kg b.w., induced significant adverse effects in biomarkers and may be deleterious to human health following long-term exposure.

Protective effects of melatonin and vitamin E in acetamiprid-induced nephrotoxicity

Investigation of probable toxic effects of acetamiprid (ACMP) on kidney and comparative analysis of the probable protective effects of vitamin E and melatonin were conducted in the present study. The ethics committee approval was obtained from Inonu University Medical Faculty Ethics Committee. Fifty Balb-c mice were randomly assigned to control, corn oil, ethyl alcohol, ACMP, ACMP + melatonin, ACMP + vitamin E, and ACMP + melatonin + vitamin E groups. At the end of the experiments, rat kidney tissues were incised under anesthesia. Blood samples and kidney tissues were examined. After 21 days of ACMP administration, it was observed that malondialdehyde (MDA), total oxidant status (TOS), BUN, creatinine, IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α levels, histopathological damage, and Caspase-3 immunoreactivity scores increased, and glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and total antioxidant status (TAS) levels decreased, and histopathological damages were observed. Melatonin and vitamin E administration led to improvements in oxidative stress parameters, renal functions, inflammatory markers, and histopathological findings. ACMP administration led to nephrotoxicity in rat kidney tissues. Although melatonin and vitamin E administrations were effective on ACMP nephrotoxicity separately, co-administration of both was quite effective. Concomitant use of melatonin and vitamin E could be effective on prevention of toxicity.

Synergistic antioxidant effects of resveratrol and curcumin against fipronil-triggered oxidative damage in male albino rats

Fipronil (FPN), a phenylpyrazole insecticide, has been receiving increased attention owing to its toxicity, which is largely mediated through its effects on antioxidant systems. The present study was undertaken to assess the effects of resveratrol (RSV) and curcumin (CUR) on oxidative damage induced by FPN. Forty mature male Wistar rats were randomized into five groups (n = 8 per group): the first group was the control; the second was administered FPN (10 mg/kg); and the third, fourth, and fifth were co-treated with RSV (10 mg/kg), CUR (200 mg/kg), and their combination, respectively, 2 h prior to FPN administration. All animals were dosed via oral gavage for 4 weeks. FPN significantly (p < 0.05) elevated the sera of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), urea, creatinine, and cholesterol levels, whereas serum total protein, albumin, and triglyceride levels were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased, compared to those of the control group. Reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT) were decreased (p < 0.05) in the FPN-treated group compared to those in the control group; however, malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) levels were markedly increased (p < 0.05) in the hepatic, renal, and brain tissues. Co-treatment with RSV or CUR alleviated (p ˂ 0.05) the increased lipid peroxidation and changes in enzymatic/nonenzymatic antioxidants induced by FPN; all these variables mostly returned to normal levels with the combined of RSV and CUR treatment. In conclusion, RSV and/or CUR relieved and synergistically reversed the FPN-induced tissue oxidative injury, probably by improving the antioxidant defenses via their free radical scavenging and antioxidant characteristics.

Sub-chronic exposure to Kalach 360 SL-induced damage in rats' liver and hematological system

We investigated the effects of sub-chronic exposure to Kalach 360 SL (KL), glyphosate-based herbicide used in Tunisia, on liver and hematological system in different groups of female rats. Group 1 was used as a control, while animals of groups 2 and 3 received orally 0.07 mL and 0.175 mL of KL, respectively (126 and 315 mg of glyphosate/kg), for 60 days. As a result, the KL-exposed groups exhibited hypochromic microcytic anemia, systemic inflammation, cytolysis, decrease in hepatic enzyme activity, and cholestasis. Exposure to different doses of KL could induce erythrocyte destruction (hemolysis) in hematopoietic organs (bones). Moreover, lipid peroxidation contents and protein oxidation markers significantly increased in exposed groups, while enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant activities decreased considerably, in both erythrocytes and liver tissues, compared with those in controls. Liver histological studies confirmed the presence of inflammatory reaction with pathology involving the damage or necrosis of hepatocytes, however, without fibrosis remodulation. Thus, KL sub-chronic exposure caused hepatonecrosis, systemic inflammation, and hemolysis.

Garlic and allopurinol attenuate hepatic apoptosis induced by fipronil in male albino rats

Fipronil (FPN) can induce oxidative tissue damage and may be contemplated as an apoptosis inducer. Our aim is to investigate the possible hepatoprotective roles of garlic or allopurinol (ALP) against fipronil subacute toxicity. Thirty-six mature male albino rats were randomly divided into six groups; the first group was saved as control (C), the 2nd (G) was orally intubated with 500 mg/kg aqueous garlic extract, and the 3rd (A) received 150 mg/L allopurinol in their drinking water. The 4th group (F) was administered 13.277 mg/kg fipronil by gavage, while the 5th (G + F) and 6th (A + F) groups received the same doses of garlic and allopurinol, respectively two hours before fipronil intoxication. Our results revealed that FPN significantly increased the hepatic malondialdehyde, protein carbonyl levels, and the enzymatic activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and xanthine oxidase, but it decreased glutathione-S-transferase compared to the control group. Moreover, FPN exhibited significant up-regulation in the hepatic pro-apoptotic (Bax) and caspase-3 genes expression, down-regulation in the anti-apoptotic (Bcl-2) mRNA gene expression and induced DNA fragmentation. Surprisingly, garlic or allopurinol co-treatment ameliorated the hepatic lipid peroxidation, antioxidants disruption, and apoptosis induced by FPN. In conclusion, garlic and allopurinol relieved the oxidative injury and reduced the fipronil-induced apoptosis probably by improving the tissue antioxidant defense system.

Cadmium overload modulates piroxicam-regulated oxidative damage and apoptotic pathways

Cadmium (Cd) is a common environmental pollutant that threatens humans' and animals' health. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used drugs due to their wide therapeutic action; however, they have significant side effects. Since, under many circumstances, humans and animals may be co-exposed to Cd and NSAIDs, the current investigation was assigned to explore the intertwining relationship between Cd and NSAIDs. Four groups of male Wister rats were used: control group: rats received saline; Cd group: rats received cadmium (Cd, 2 mg/kg) orally; Px group: rats received a NSAID (piroxicam, Px, 7 mg/kg, i.p.); and Cd+Px group: rats received both Cd+Px. All treatments were given once a day for 28 consecutive days. Then, blood samples, stomach, liver, and kidney tissues were collected. The results indicated that Px provoked gastric ulcer indicated by high ulcer index, while Cd had no effect on the gastric mucosa. In addition, treatment with Cd or Px alone significantly induced liver and kidney injuries indicated by serum elevations of AST, ALT, ALP, ALB, total protein, creatinine, and urea along with histopathological alterations. Significant increases in malondialdehyde and reduction in GSH and CAT contents were reported along with up-regulated expression of Bax and Bcl-2 after Cd or Px exposure. However, when Cd and Px were given in a combination, Cd obviously potentiated the Px-inflicted cellular injury and death in the liver and kidney but not in the stomach when compared to their individual exposure. This study concluded that oxidative stress mechanisms were supposed to be the main modulator in promoting Cd and Px toxicities when given in combination.

Inflammatory and oxidative injury is induced in cardiac and pulmonary tissue following fipronil exposure in Japanese quail: mRNA expression of the genes encoding interleukin 6, nuclear factor kappa B, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha

The phenylpyrazole insecticide, fipronil, isused for the eradication of insects in agriculture, which also exposes various non-target groups such as birds and animals. Our aim was to assess the cardiac and pulmonary consequences of sub-acute administration of fipronil (¹∕₅ LD₅₀; 2.26 mg/kg) in the Japanese quail for fifteen days and to determine the tissue recovery over a period of 60 days. Fipronil exposure led to a significant decrease in the body weight of the treated birds. Its exposure also induced cardiac and pulmonary damage of varying degrees. Fipronil increased the lipid peroxide (LPO) and nitric oxide (NO) contents as well as indices of tissue injury in the serum of exposed birds. Furthermore, it decreased the antioxidant indices in both the organs. Most of these changes gradually reversed and the histological changes, particularly of the heart, reversed completely by day-60 of recovery. Furthermore, alterations in the mRNA gene expressions of Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), Interleukin 6 (IL-6), and Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) were monitored by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In both the tissues, a significant up-regulation of the transcripts was recorded after fipronil administration, which was reversed during the recovery period in the heart tissue except for TNF-α, while the transcripts in the lung tissue declined non-significantly. This study showed that the exposure of Japanese quail to fipronil has a profound negative impact on heart and lung including oxidative injury and tissue inflammation. Fipronil can induce the activity of NF-κB inflammatory -signaling pathway that play a role in the associated tissue inflammation. Although most of the cardiac changes could be reversed after a recovery period of sixty days, the pulmonary changes did not reverse much.

Lycopene and resveratrol ameliorate zinc oxide nanoparticles-induced oxidative stress in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus

Industrial products contained nano-zinc oxide (ZnONP) can gain access to the aquaculture environment causing hazardous effects on the living biota. Therefore, this work was planned to examine the ameliorative effects of dietary supplementation of lycopene (LYC) and/or resveratrol (RES) against ZnONP toxicity in Nile tilapia. Five groups with 20 fish each were used; Control, received tap water only; ZnONP group, was intoxicated with ZnONP (50 mg/L); ZnONP-LYC group, was exposed to ZnONP and LYC (500 mg/ kg of the diet); ZnONP-RES group, was exposed to ZnONP and RES (50 mg/kg of the diet); ZnONP-LYC-RES group, was exposed to ZnONP and a combination of LYC and RES. The experiment was continued for 30 days. Fish blood and tissues were then assembled for determination of liver and kidney function and oxidative stress status in liver, kidney, and gills tissue. Results revealed a considerable elevation of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), cholesterol, urea, and creatinine with a noticeable lowering of total proteins and albumin serum levels in response to ZnONP intoxication. In addition, there were significant increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduction in the reduced-glutathione (GSH) levels and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities. However, treatment with LYC and/or RES ameliorated the ZnONP-inflicted oxidative stress which possibly attributed to their beneficial antioxidant activities.

Piperine Enhances the Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Thymoquinone against Microcystin-LR-Induced Hepatotoxicity and Neurotoxicity in Mice

Microcystin- (MC-) LR is the most frequent cyanotoxin produced by Microcystis aeruginosa cyanobacteria in the contaminated freshwater environment. MC represents a health hazard to humans and animals. Therefore, the present study was designed to evaluate the potential ameliorative effect of thymoquinone (TQ) and/or piperine (PP) against MC toxicity in mice. Fifty-six mice were randomly divided into seven experimental groups. Group I is the normal control that received distilled water for 21 days; Group II (TQ) was treated with TQ (10 mg/kg, i.p) for 21 days; Group III (PP) was treated with PP (25 mg/kg, i.p) for 21 days; Group IV (MC) was treated with MC (10 μg/kg, i.p) for 14 days and served as the toxic control; and Groups V, VI, and VII received TQ and/or PP 7 days prior to MC and continued for 14 days with MC. The results revealed that MC elicited hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity which was evident due to the significant elevation of serum AST, ALT, γGT, ALP, LDH, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels. Furthermore, MC markedly increased MDA and NO contents along with reduction of GSH, SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px in liver and brain tissues. The electron transport chain may be a possible target for MC. TQ and/or PP ameliorated the MC-mediated oxidative damage in the liver and brain which might be attributed to their antioxidant properties. However, the concurrent treatment of TQ and PP showed the best regimen as a result of the PP-enhanced bioavailability of TQ.

Hepatorenal protective effects of taurine and N-acetylcysteine against fipronil-induced injuries: The antioxidant status and apoptotic markers expression in rats

Fipronil (FPN), a commonly used phenylpyrazole pesticide can induce oxidative tissue damage following hazard usage. Due to the extensive household and commercial usage of FPN, its toxic effects on mammals received considerable attention. Finding the proper antioxidant that can overcome FPN-induced damage is essential. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess the hepatorenal ameliorative outcomes of N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) and taurine (TAU) against hepatorenal damage induced by FPN in male Wistar rats. Compared to control rats, oral FPN (at a dose of 19.4 mg kg-1 BW for five successive days) significantly increased serum activities (p ≤ 0.05) of alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase and transaminases, in addition to total cholesterol, urea and creatinine levels. Moreover, FPN provoked oxidative damage indicated by increased malondialdehyde and nitric oxide formation and decreased glutathione concentration and activities of enzymatic antioxidants (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase) in the hepatic and renal tissues. Furthermore, FPN administration induced overexpression of the proapoptotic (Bax), while it downregulated the expression of the anti-apoptotic (Bcl-2) protein. Interestingly, oral administration of TAU (50 mg Kg-1 BW) and NAC (50 mg Kg-1 BW), alone or in combination, five days prior to and five days along with FPN administration, significantly ameliorated (p ≤ 0.05) and normalized the harmful effects of FPN on serum biomarkers of hepatorenal injury, lipid peroxidation and tissue antioxidants. In conclusion, TAU and NAC, alone or in combination, provided significant hepatorenal protection against oxidative stress and apoptosis induced by FPN.

Hepatoprotective activity of Uncaria tomentosa extract against sub-chronic exposure to fipronil in male rats

The effects of fipronil (FPN) on the liver of rats were studied. Rats (n = 6) were treated with 9.7 mg/kg (1/10 of FPN LD₅₀), and other rats (n = 6) received 120 mg/kg of 10% Uncaria tomentosa extract, while a mixture of 9.7 mg/kg FPN and 120 mg/kg of 10% Uncaria tomentosa extract were administered orally to the rats (n = 6) daily for 6 weeks. Body, hepatic weights, liver enzymes, and lipid profile were determined. Hepatic activities of MDA, TNO, TAC, TNF-α, and IL-6 in liver homogenate were measured. Immunohistochemistry of NF-kB and liver histopathology were performed. Fipronil-treated rats had a significant (P = 0.02) lower weight gain. Moreover, relative liver weight was significantly (P = 0.003) increased in FPN-treated rats. Rats administrated with FPN exhibited a significantly (P = 0.02) higher liver enzymes and promoted levels of MDA, TNO, TNF-α, and IL-6 (P < 0.0001) than that in the other groups. Immunostaining of NF-κB was increased (P < 0.0001) in FPN-treated rats. Interestingly, Uncaria tomentosa alone or with FPN decreased the liver immunostaining of NF-κB. In conclusion, FPN produced liver injury through lipid peroxidation and stimulation of NF-κB. However, Uncaria tomentosa combated the oxidative stress and liver damage induced by FPN via inhibition of NF-κB.

Protective effect of cinnamon against acetaminophen-mediated cellular damage and apoptosis in renal tissue

Acetaminophen, APAP, is a common over-the-counter drug with antipyretic-analgesic action. When APAP is used in large doses, it causes hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity but safe at therapeutic doses. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is extensively used in folk medicine due to its high content of natural antioxidants. The current investigation was planned to study the possible ameliorative effect of cinnamon toward induced APAP-apoptosis and cellular damage in renal cells. Four groups (nine rats each) were used; negative control group administrated distilled water for 15 days; positive control APAP group administrated a single dose of APAP (1 g/kg) orally on the last day; APAP+Cin L (200 mg/kg) and APAP+Cin H (400 mg/kg) aqueous extract of cinnamon orally once a day for 15 days. An hour after the last dose of cinnamon, all rats in the third and fourth group were administrated a single dose of APAP (1 g/kg) orally. GC/MS analysis was performed to identify the plant used in the study. APAP markedly increased serum levels of creatinine, BUN, and glucose and decreased levels of albumin and total protein. In addition, APAP could also exert severe alteration in the kidney histopathology along with upregulation of caspase-3 and PCNA. However, pre-treatment with cinnamon ameliorated the APAP-induced cellular alterations and apoptosis, possibly through its high content of antioxidants.

Gentamicin induced acute renal damage and its evaluation using urinary biomarkers in rats

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Gentamicin induced dose dependent and temporal change in urinary biomarkers.

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Histological changes were minimal to severe on Day 4 & 8 respectively at both doses.

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Several fold increase in urinary biomarkers on Day 4 and 8 at both doses.

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On Day 8, increase in urinary and serum markers and histological changes.

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Clusterin is highly sensitive urinary biomarkers.

Consistent, sensitive biomarkers of acute kidney injury in animal models and humans have historically represented a poorly met need for investigators and clinicians. Detection of early kidney damage using urinary biomarkers is essential to assess the adversity in preclinical toxicology studies, which will help in reducing attrition of lead candidates in drug development. This study was undertaken to evaluate recently identified urinary biomarkers use in identifying acute kidney injury compared to traditional serum markers in experimentally induced nephrotoxicity in male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. Gentamicin induced nephrotoxicity in Sprague Dawley rats is commonly detected using serum markers and histological evaluation of kidneys. Gentamicin, an aminoglycoside was administered at 30 and 100 mg/kg/day dose (subcutaneous) for seven consecutive days to induce nephrotoxicity. On day 4 and day 8 post treatment, serum and urine samples from these rats were analyzed for traditional serum/urine and novel urinary biomarkers and microscopic evaluation of kidneys.

On Day 4, no statistically significant change in serum BUN and creatinine level, but increase in urinary microalbumin (mALB) and urinary protein (UP) noticed in both doses of Gentamicin treated rats. On Day 8 significant increase in serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine, UP and urinary mALB at 100 mg/kg/day, increase in total protein and decrease in albumin in 30 and 100 mg/kg/day and decrease in BUN and creatinine at 100 mg/kg of Gentamicin treated rats. The BUN and creatinine levels or fold change was comparable between control and 30 mg/kg of Gentamicin on Day 8, however, there was 5.6 and 3.4 fold change in BUN and Creatinine level noticed at 100 mg/kg/day of Gentamicin. On Day 4 and 8, significant increase in urinary levels of Clusterin was noted with animals administered both doses of Gentamicin. Similarly, significant increase in urinary levels of kidney injury molecule 1 (Kim-1), Cystatin C and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) were noticed with animals administered Gentamicin at 100 mg/kg/day on both Day 4 and 8. All these markers have shown dose-dependent change.

Histological changes seen on Day 4 and Day 8 were of minimal to mild and moderate to severe in nature at both doses, respectively. The results demonstrated the sensitiveness and accuracy of detecting acute renal damage with novel urinary biomarkers, and their use in diagnosing early kidney damage. This helps in adversity assessment in animal toxicology studies and advocating right treatment to patients who have early renal injury which otherwise can only be diagnosed by elevated levels of traditional biomarkers in blood only after >30% of kidneys is damaged.

Tissue metabolomics study to reveal the toxicity of a traditional Tibetan medicine 'Renqing Changjue' in rats

Renqing Changjue (RQCJ), a precious Traditional Tibetan Medicine (TTM), has been widely used in the management of diseases of the digestive system, toxinosis and pyreticosis. However, in the formula, a significant level of heavy metals, which are potential toxic elements, are present. Therefore, it is important to assess the toxicity of RQCJ dynamically and holistically. In the present study, a ¹H NMR metabolomics approach and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were implemented to analyze the samples of liver, kidney and spleen from rats treated with RQCJ. The results revealed that 9 metabolites in the liver, 13 metabolites in the kidney and 16 metabolites in the spleen were significantly altered, which suggest that disturbances in TCA cycle, amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism and oxidative stress are produced by successive administration of RQCJ over 15 days. Complemented by histopathology and biochemical assay, the trends of the metabolite levels indicate that RQCJ caused tissue injury to a certain extent, which was evidenced by the high levels of As and Hg in the tissue. The toxic effects of RQCJ were alleviated in liver and kidney during the recovery period, and RQCJ may cause long-term damage in spleen. These findings provide a significant experimental proof on the estimated safety and valuable information about the metabolism of RQCJ, which will be valuable in determining the health risks of the drug.

Novel organophosphorus aminopyrimidines as unique structural DNA-targeting membrane active inhibitors towards drug-resistant methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

A series of novel unique structural organophosphorus aminopyrimidines were developed as potential DNA-targeting membrane active inhibitors through an efficient one-pot procedure from aldehydes, phosphonate and aminopyrimidine. The biological assay revealed that some of the prepared compounds displayed antibacterial activities. In particular, imidazole derivative 2c exhibited more potent inhibitory activity against MRSA with an MIC value of 4 μg mL^-1 in comparison with the clinical drugs chloromycin and norfloxacin. Experiments revealed that the active molecule 2c had the ability to rapidly kill the tested strains without obviously triggering the development of bacterial resistance, showed low toxicity to L929 cells and could disturb the cell membrane. The molecular docking study discovered that compound 2c could bind with DNA gyrase via hydrogen bonds and other weak interactions. Further exploration disclosed that the active molecule 2c could also effectively intercalate into MRSA DNA and form a steady 2c-DNA supramolecular complex, which might further block DNA replication to exert powerful antibacterial effects.