Temozolomide loaded nano lipid based chitosan hydrogel for nose to brain delivery: Characterization, nasal absorption, histopathology and cell line study

Advancements in Polymer and Lipid-based Nanotherapeutics for Cancer Drug Targeting

Cancer is a global disease. It is the second leading cause of death worldwide, according to the health report. Approximately 70% of deaths from cancer occurs in low- and middle-income countries. According to the WHO, in 2015 8.8 million deaths were reported due to cancer worldwide. The conventional system of medicine was used since a long for the management of the disease, but it comes with the drawback of low safety, less efficacy and non-targeting of cancer cells. Nanotherapeutics has become the most exploited drug targeting system based on the safety and efficacy this system provides over the conventional system. This review summarizes an advanced design consideration in anticancer therapy, recent advancements in the nanocarrier-based advanced drug targeting, challenges and limitations related to nanoparticles-based therapy in cancer and its future perspective. The review also lists the on-going clinical trials in the last five years on nano-based therapy for different types of cancer. The data for this article was obtained by an extensive literature review of related published scientific contents from the WHO's website, PubMed, Scopus, Scielo, clinicaltrials.gov and other relevant scientific archiving services. The safety and efficacy that nanoparticles provide, and the current research strongly support their application in cancer drug targeting. However, their presence in the market is still limited. Nanotherapeutics in cancer drug targeting needs extensive research in association with pharmaceutical industries. Nano-targeting based therapies are the future of pharmaceutical designing for the diagnosis, management and prevention of different forms of cancer.

A Reevaluation of Chitosan-Decorated Nanoparticles to Cross the Blood-Brain Barrier

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a sophisticated and very selective dynamic interface composed of endothelial cells expressing enzymes, transport systems, and receptors that regulate the passage of nutrients, ions, oxygen, and other essential molecules to the brain, regulating its homeostasis. Moreover, the BBB performs a vital function in protecting the brain from pathogens and other dangerous agents in the blood circulation. Despite its crucial role, this barrier represents a difficult obstacle for the treatment of brain diseases because many therapeutic agents cannot cross it. Thus, different strategies based on nanoparticles have been explored in recent years. Concerning this, chitosan-decorated nanoparticles have demonstrated enormous potential for drug delivery across the BBB and treatment of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, gliomas, cerebral ischemia, and schizophrenia. Our main objective was to highlight the high potential of chitosan adsorption to improve the penetrability through the BBB of nanoformulations for diseases of CNS. Therefore, we describe the BBB structure and function, as well as the routes of chitosan for crossing it. Moreover, we define the methods of decoration of nanoparticles with chitosan and provide numerous examples of their potential utilization in a variety of brain diseases. Lastly, we discuss future directions, mentioning the need for extensive characterization of proposed nanoformulations and clinical trials for evaluation of their efficacy.

Double Optimization of Rivastigmine-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) for Nose-to-Brain Delivery Using the Quality by Design (QbD) Approach: Formulation Variables and Instrumental Parameters

Rivastigmine is a drug commonly used in the management of Alzheimer's disease that shows bioavailability problems. To overcome this, the use of nanosystems, such as nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), administered through alternative routes seems promising. In this work, we performed a double optimization of a rivastigmine-loaded NLC formulation for direct drug delivery from the nose to the brain using the quality by design (QbD) approach, whereby the quality target product profile (QTPP) was the requisite for nose to brain delivery. The experiments started with the optimization of the formulation variables (or critical material attributes-CMAs) using a central composite design. The rivastigmine-loaded NLC formulations with the best critical quality attributes (CQAs) of particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), and encapsulation efficiency (EE) were selected for the second optimization, which was related to the production methods (ultrasound technique and high-pressure homogenization). The most suitable instrumental parameters for the production of NLC were analyzed through a Box-Behnken design, with the same CQAs being evaluated for the first optimization. For the second part of the optimization studies, were selected two rivastigmine-loaded NLC formulations: one produced by ultrasound technique and the other by the high-pressure homogenization (HPH) method. Afterwards, the pH and osmolarity of these formulations were adjusted to the physiological nasal mucosa values and in vitro drug release studies were performed. The results of the first part of the optimization showed that the most adequate ratios of lipids and surfactants were 7.49:1.94 and 4.5:0.5 (%, w/w), respectively. From the second part of the optimization, the results for the particle size, PDI, ZP, and EE of the rivastigmine-loaded NLC formulations produced by ultrasound technique and HPH method were, respectively, 114.0 ± 1.9 nm and 109.0 ± 0.9 nm; 0.221 ± 0.003 and 0.196 ± 0.007; -30.6 ± 0.3 mV and -30.5 ± 0.3 mV; 97.0 ± 0.5% and 97.2 ± 0.3%. Herein, the HPH was selected as the most suitable production method, although the ultrasound technique has also shown effectiveness. In addition, no significant changes in CQAs were observed after 90 days of storage of the formulations at different temperatures. In vitro studies showed that the release of rivastigmine followed a non-Fickian mechanism, with an initial fast drug release followed by a prolonged release over 48 h. This study has optimized a rivastigmine-loaded NLC formulation produced by the HPH method for nose-to-brain delivery of rivastigmine. The next step is for in vitro and in vivo experiments to demonstrate preclinical efficacy and safety. QbD was demonstrated to be a useful approach for the optimization of NLC formulations for which specific physicochemical requisites can be identified.

Evaluation of the Properties of Encapsulated Stavudine Microparticulate Lipid-based Drug Delivery System in Immunocompromised Wistar Rats

BACKGROUND

Lipid-based formulations have been confirmed to lower some side effects of drugs and can be tailor-made to offer sustained drug release of drugs with short half-life like stavudine.

AIM

This study aimed to evaluate the immunomodulatory properties of stavudine-loaded solid lipid microparticles (SLMs) using immunocompromised Wistar rats.

METHODS

The SLMs were formulated by the homogenization method. The optimized batches were used for further in vivo studies. The effect of formulation on the CD4 count and the haematological properties of immunocompromised Wistar rats were studied.

RESULTS

The particle size range was 4 -8 μm, EE range was 85-93 % and maximum drug release was observed at 10 h. The CD4 cells increased from 115 ± 3.17 cell/mm3 at day zero to 495 ± 5.64 cell/mm3 at day 14 of treatment and 538 ± 6.31 cell/mm3 at day 21. The red blood cells increased from 2.64 ± 1.58 (x 106/mm3) at day zero to 6.96 ± 3.47 (x 106/mm3) at day 14 and 7.85 ± 3.64 (x 106/mm3) at day 21. PCV increased significantly (p < 0.05) to about 42-50 % at day 21 in the groups that received the SLMs formulations. White blood cells (WBC) also were 12 x 103/mm3, for SLM formulations, while the rats that received plain stavudine exhibited WBC of 9.6 x 103/mm3 at day 21. The histopathological studies revealed that oral stavudine-loaded SLMs had no significant damage to the kidney, liver, spleen and the brain of Wistar rats.

CONCLUSION

The formulations exhibited significantly higher immunomodulatory properties than plain stavudine (p<0.05) and showed good properties for once daily oral administration and could be a better alternative to plain stavudine tablets for the management of patients living with HIV.

Potential of Chitosan and Its Derivatives for Biomedical Applications in the Central Nervous System

It is well known that the central nervous system (CNS) has a limited regenerative capacity and that many therapeutic molecules cannot cross the blood brain barrier (BBB). The use of biomaterials has emerged as an alternative to overcome these limitations. For many years, biomedical applications of chitosan have been studied due to its remarkable biological properties, biocompatibility, and high versatility. Moreover, the interest in this biomaterial for CNS biomedical implementation has increased because of its ability to cross the BBB, mucoadhesiveness, and hydrogel formation capacity. Several chitosan-based biomaterials have been applied with promising results as drug, cell and gene delivery vehicles. Moreover, their capacity to form porous scaffolds and to bear cells and biomolecules has offered a way to achieve neural regeneration. Therefore, this review aims to bring together recent works that highlight the potential of chitosan and its derivatives as adequate biomaterials for applications directed toward the CNS. First, an overview of chitosan and its derivatives is provided with an emphasis on the properties that favor different applications. Second, a compilation of works that employ chitosan-based biomaterials for drug delivery, gene therapy, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine in the CNS is presented. Finally, the most interesting trends and future perspectives of chitosan and its derivatives applications in the CNS are shown.

Assessing Drug Release from Manipulated Abuse Deterrent Formulations

There is a need to develop in vitro dissolution methods that discriminate for particle size of the manipulated abuse deterrent formulation (ADF) and that can be used for in vivo predictive models since dissolution methods developed for intact formulation might not be suitable for manipulated ones. A vertical diffusion cell (VDC) and United States Pharmacopeia (USP) Apparatus 1, 2, and 4 were evaluated for measuring the dissolution of intact and manipulated metoprolol succinate tablets with abuse deterrent-like properties. These tablets were physically manipulated to produce fine (106-500 μm) and coarse (500-1000 μm) powder samples. The VDC method was not able to discriminate the effect of particle size on drug release with varied stirring rate (200 to 800 rpm), molecular weight cut-off (MWCO, 3-5 kDa to 12-14 kDa) of the diffusion membrane, or composition and ionic strength (0.45% and 0.9%) of receiver medium. Standard and modified USP Apparatus 1 and 2 methods were assessed; however, large variations (RSD > 20%) were observed with USP Apparatus 1 for manipulated product dissolution and floating powder samples caused failure of auto-sampling when using standard USP Apparatus 2. For the USP Apparatus 4 dissolution method, packing configuration (1, 3, 8 layers and blend), ionic strength of dissolution medium (0.017, 0.077, and 0.154 M additional NaCl), and flow rate (4, 8, 16 mL/min) were studied to discriminate the effect of particle size on release. The USP Apparatus 4 dissolution method was optimized by using a packaging configuration of 8 layers with 8 mL/min flow rate which exhibited low variability and complete drug release and it could be used for in vivo predictive models. The dissolution method variables can be optimized for a specific product for desirable reproducibility and discriminatory power when using USP Apparatus 4.

Chitosan-grafted tetrapolymer using two monomers: pH-responsive high-performance removals of Cu(II), Cd(II), Pb(II), dichromate, and biphosphate and analyses of adsorbed microstructures

For circumventing the cumbersome and expensive multifunctional and multipolymer adsorbents for high-performance removals of hazardous water-contaminant(s), chitosan-g-[2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanoic acid (AMPS)-co-2-(3-acrylamidopropanamido)-2-methylpropane-1-sulfonic acid (APAMPS)-co-2-(N-(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)acrylamido)-2-methylpropane-1-sulfonic acid (NAOPAMPS)-co-acrylamide (AM)] (i.e., chitosan-g-tetrapolymer), a multifunctional scalable and reusable hydrogel, was synthesized by grafting of chitosan and in situ attachments of N-H functionalized NAOPAMPS and APAMPS hydrophilic acrylamido-monomers during free-radical solution-polymerization of the two ex situ added AMPS and AM monomers in water. The response surface methodology was employed to synthesize one hydrogel envisaging the optimum balance between swelling and stability for the superadsorption of Cu(II), Cd(II), Pb(II), Cr₂O₇^2-, and HPO₄^2-. The in situ attachments of NAOPAMPS and APAMPS, grafting of chitosan into tetrapolymer, structures and properties, pH-responsive abilities, superadsorption mechanism, and reusability were understood via in depth microstructural analyses of adsorbed and/or unadsorbed chitosan-g-tetrapolymer(s) through ¹H/¹³C NMR, FTIR, XPS, TGA, XRD, DLS, and pH_PZC. The maximum adsorption capacities of Cd(II), Cu(II), Pb(II), Cr₂O₇^2-, and HPO₄^2- were 1374.41, 1521.08, 1554.08, 47.76, and 32.76 mg g^-1, respectively.

Nasal Drug Delivery of Anticancer Drugs for the Treatment of Glioblastoma: Preclinical and Clinical Trials

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most lethal form of brain tumor, being characterized by the rapid growth and invasion of the surrounding tissue. The current standard treatment for glioblastoma is surgery, followed by radiotherapy and concurrent chemotherapy, typically with temozolomide. Although extensive research has been carried out over the past years to develop a more effective therapeutic strategy for the treatment of GBM, efforts have not provided major improvements in terms of the overall survival of patients. Consequently, new therapeutic approaches are urgently needed. Overcoming the blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a major challenge in the development of therapies for central nervous system (CNS) disorders. In this context, the intranasal route of drug administration has been proposed as a non-invasive alternative route for directly targeting the CNS. This route of drug administration bypasses the BBB and reduces the systemic side effects. Recently, several formulations have been developed for further enhancing nose-to-brain transport, mainly with the use of nano-sized and nanostructured drug delivery systems. The focus of this review is to provide an overview of the strategies that have been developed for delivering anticancer compounds for the treatment of GBM while using nasal administration. In particular, the specific properties of nanomedicines proposed for nose-to-brain delivery will be critically evaluated. The preclinical and clinical data considered supporting the idea that nasal delivery of anticancer drugs may represent a breakthrough advancement in the fight against GBM.

Hydrophilic Molecularly Imprinted Chitosan Based on Deep Eutectic Solvents for the Enrichment of Gallic Acid in Red Ginseng Tea

Hydrophilic molecularly imprinted chitosan (HMICS) were synthesized based on hydrophilic deep eutectic solvents (DESs) and the DESs was used as both a template and functional monomer for the enrichment of gallic acid (GA) from red ginseng tea using a solid phase microextraction (SPME) method. Using the response surface methodology (RSM) strategy, the optimal extraction amount (8.57 mg·g⁻¹) was found to be an extraction time of 30 min, a solid to liquid ratio of 20 mg·mL⁻¹, and five adsorption/desorption cycles. Compared to traditional methods, the produced HMICS-SPME exhibited the advantages of simplicity of operation, higher recovery and selectivity, improved analytical characteristics and reduced sample and reagent consumption, and it is expected to promote the rapid development and wide applications of molecular imprinting.

Chitosan-based (Nano)materials for Novel Biomedical Applications

Chitosan-based nanomaterials have attracted significant attention in the biomedical field because of their unique biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic, and antimicrobial nature. Multiple perspectives of the proposed antibacterial effect and mode of action of chitosan-based nanomaterials are reviewed. Chitosan is presented as an ideal biomaterial for antimicrobial wound dressings that can either be fabricated alone in its native form or upgraded and incorporated with antibiotics, metallic antimicrobial particles, natural compounds and extracts in order to increase the antimicrobial effect. Since chitosan and its derivatives can enhance drug permeability across the blood-brain barrier, they can be also used as effective brain drug delivery carriers. Some of the recent chitosan formulations for brain uptake of various drugs are presented. The use of chitosan and its derivatives in other biomedical applications is also briefly discussed.

Chitosan-Coated Nanoparticles: Effect of Chitosan Molecular Weight on Nasal Transmucosal Delivery

Drug delivery to the brain represents a challenge, especially in the therapy of central nervous system malignancies. Simvastatin (SVT), as with other statins, has shown potential anticancer properties that are difficult to exploit in the central nervous system (CNS). In the present work the physico⁻chemical, mucoadhesive, and permeability-enhancing properties of simvastatin-loaded poly-ε-caprolactone nanocapsules coated with chitosan for nose-to-brain administration were investigated. Lipid-core nanocapsules coated with chitosan (LNCchit) of different molecular weight (MW) were prepared by a novel one-pot technique, and characterized for particle size, surface charge, particle number density, morphology, drug encapsulation efficiency, interaction between surface nanocapsules with mucin, drug release, and permeability across two nasal mucosa models. Results show that all formulations presented adequate particle sizes (below 220 nm), positive surface charge, narrow droplet size distribution (PDI < 0.2), and high encapsulation efficiency. Nanocapsules presented controlled drug release and mucoadhesive properties that are dependent on the MW of the coating chitosan. The results of permeation across the RPMI 2650 human nasal cell line evidenced that LNCchit increased the permeation of SVT. In particular, the amount of SVT that permeated after 4 hr for nanocapsules coated with low-MW chitosan, high-MW chitosan, and control SVT was 13.9 ± 0.8 μg, 9.2 ± 1.2 µg, and 1.4 ± 0.2 µg, respectively. These results were confirmed by SVT ex vivo permeation across rabbit nasal mucosa. This study highlighted the suitability of LNCchit as a promising strategy for the administration of simvastatin for a nose-to-brain approach for the therapy of brain tumors.

Nanostructured lipid carriers engineered for intranasal delivery of teriflunomide in multiple sclerosis: optimization and in vivo studies

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one of the most severe autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system (CNS).

OBJECTIVE

The present research work was aimed to formulate and investigate teriflunomide (TFM)-loaded intranasal (i.n.) nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS).

METHODS

The TFM-loaded NLC (TFM-NLC) nanoparticles were prepared by melt emulsification ultrasonication method using biodegradable and biocompatible polymers. The Box-Behnken statistical design was applied to optimize the formulation. The optimized NLC formulation was subjected to evaluate for particle size, entrapment efficiency (%), in vitro and ex vivo permeation. The safety and efficacy of optimized formulations were demonstrated using pharmacodynamic, subacute toxicity and hepatotoxicity data.

RESULTS

Experimental data demonstrated that optimized NLC formulation (F17) showed significant size (99.82 ± 1.36 nm), zeta potential (-22.29 ± 1.8 mV) and % entrapment efficiency (83.39 ± 1.24%). Alternatively, ex vivo permeation of TFM mucoadhesive NLC (TFM-MNLC) and TFM-NLC was observed 830 ± 7.6 and 651 ± 9.8 µg/cm², respectively. Whereas, TFM-MNLC shows around 2.0-folds more J_ss than the TFM-NLC. Finally, TFM-MNLC (i.n.) formulation produced the rapid remyelination in cuprizone-treated animals and decreases the number of entries in open compartment of EPM when compared with negative control and TFM-NLC (oral) animals. Simultaneously, the nanoformulation did not reflect any gross changes in hepatic biomarkers and subacute toxicity when compared with control.

CONCLUSIONS

Hence it can be inferred that the nose-to-brain delivery of TFM-MNLC can be considered as effective and safe delivery for brain disorders.

Lamotrigine encapsulated intra-nasal nanoliposome formulation for epilepsy treatment: Formulation design, characterization and nasal toxicity study

The purpose of this study was to develop lamotrigine nanoliposomes (LTG-NLs) for the treatment in seizures. The formulation was prepared using thin film hydration and rehydration method using the phospholipon 90 G, cholesterol and tween 80 as main ingredients. The nanoliposomes were optimized by plucket burman design (PBD) and response surface methodology (RSM) optimization techniques. The optimized LTGNLopt was further characterized for surface morphology, in-vitro release, stability study, confocal laser scanning microscopic (CLSM) study and naso toxicity study. The results showed that LTGNLopt shown nano size with high entrapment and drug release. The ex-vivo permeation study and confocal laser microscopy study confirmed the enhancement in permeation across the goat nasal mucosa. From the study, it was concluded that the independent variables used to optimize the NLs shown significant effect on the dependent variables and consider effective lipid carrier system for intranasal delivery.

New Multitarget Approaches in the War Against Glioblastoma: A Mini-Perspective

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common tumor of the CNS, and the deadliest form of brain cancer. The rapid progression, the anatomic location in the brain and a deficient knowledge of the pathophysiology, often limit the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions. Current pillars of GBM therapies include surgical resection, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, but the low survival rate and the short life expectation following these treatments strongly underline the urgency to identify innovative and more effective therapeutic tools. Frequently, patients subjected to a mono-target therapy, such as Temozolomide (TMZ), develop drug resistance and undergo relapse, indicating that targeting a single cellular node is not sufficient for eradication of this disease. In this context, a multi-targeted therapeutic approach aimed at using compounds, alone or in combination, capable of inhibiting more than one specific molecular target, offers a promising alternative. Such strategies have already been well integrated into drug discovery campaigns, including in the field of anticancer drugs. In this miniperspective, we will discuss the recent progress in the treatment of GBM focusing on innovative and effective preclinical strategies, which are based on a multi-targeted approach.