Gbeta5 prevents the RGS7-Galphao interaction through binding to a distinct Ggamma-like domain found in RGS7 and other RGS proteins

Ggamma-like (GGL) domains: new frontiers in G-protein signaling and beta-propeller scaffolding

The standard model of signal transduction from G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) involves guanine nucleotide cycling by a heterotrimeric G-protein assembly composed of Galpha, Gbeta, and Ggamma subunits. The WD-repeat beta-propeller protein Gbeta and the alpha-helical, isoprenylated polypeptide Ggamma are considered obligate dimerization partners; moreover, conventional Gbetagamma heterodimers are considered essential to the functional coupling of Galpha subunits to receptors. However, our recent discovery of a Gbeta5 binding site (the Ggamma-like or "GGL" domain) within several regulators of G-protein signaling (RGS) proteins revealed the potential for functional GPCR/Galpha coupling in the absence of a conventional Ggamma subunit. In addition, we posit that the interaction between Gbeta5 isoforms and the GGL domains of RGS proteins represents a general mode of binding between beta-propeller proteins and their partners, extending beyond the realm of G-protein-linked signal transduction.

The G-protein beta-subunit GPB-2 in Caenorhabditis elegans regulates the G(o)alpha-G(q)alpha signaling network through interactions with the regulator of G-protein signaling proteins EGL-10 and EAT-16

The genome of Caenorhabditis elegans harbors two genes for G-protein beta-subunits. Here, we describe the characterization of the second G-protein beta-subunit gene gpb-2. In contrast to gpb-1, gpb-2 is not an essential gene even though, like gpb-1, gpb-2 is expressed during development, in the nervous system, and in muscle cells. A loss-of-function mutation in gpb-2 produces a variety of behavioral defects, including delayed egg laying and reduced pharyngeal pumping. Genetic analysis shows that GPB-2 interacts with the GOA-1 (homologue of mammalian G(o)alpha) and EGL-30 (homologue of mammalian G(q)alpha) signaling pathways. GPB-2 is most similar to the divergent mammalian Gbeta5 subunit, which has been shown to mediate a specific interaction with a Ggamma-subunit-like (GGL) domain of RGS proteins. We show here that GPB-2 physically and genetically interacts with the GGL-containing RGS proteins EGL-10 and EAT-16. Taken together, our results suggest that GPB-2 works in concert with the RGS proteins EGL-10 and EAT-16 to regulate GOA-1 (G(o)alpha) and EGL-30 (G(q)alpha) signaling.

Mechanisms governing subcellular localization and function of human RGS2

RGS proteins negatively regulate heterotrimeric G proteins at the plasma membrane. RGS2-GFP localizes to the nucleus, plasma membrane, and cytoplasm of HEK293 cells. Expression of activated G(q) increased RGS2 association with the plasma membrane and decreased accumulation in the nucleus, suggesting that signal-induced redistribution may regulate RGS2 function. Thus, we identified and characterized a conserved N-terminal domain in RGS2 that is necessary and sufficient for plasma membrane localization. Mutational and biophysical analyses indicated that this domain is an amphipathic alpha-helix that binds vesicles containing acidic phospholipids. However, the plasma membrane targeting function of the amphipathic helical domain did not appear to be essential for RGS2 to attenuate signaling by activated G(q). Nevertheless, truncation mutants indicated that the N terminus is essential, potentially serving as a scaffold that binds receptors, signaling proteins, or nuclear components. Indeed, the RGS2 N terminus directs nuclear accumulation of GFP. Although RGS2 possesses a nuclear targeting motif, it lacks a nuclear import signal and enters the nucleus by passive diffusion. Nuclear accumulation of RGS2 does not limit its ability to attenuate G(q) signaling, because excluding RGS2 from the nucleus was without effect. RGS2 may nonetheless regulate signaling or other processes in the nucleus.

Nuclear localization of G protein beta 5 and regulator of G protein signaling 7 in neurons and brain

The role that Gbeta(5) regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) complexes play in signal transduction in brain remains unknown. The subcellular localization of Gbeta(5) and RGS7 was examined in rat PC12 pheochromocytoma cells and mouse brain. Both nuclear and cytosolic localization of Gbeta(5) and RGS7 was evident in PC12 cells by immunocytochemical staining. Subcellular fractionation of PC12 cells demonstrated Gbeta(5) immunoreactivity in the membrane, cytosolic, and nuclear fractions. Analysis by limited proteolysis confirmed the identity of Gbeta(5) in the nuclear fraction. Subcellular fractionation of mouse brain demonstrated Gbeta(5) and RGS7 but not Ggamma(2/3) immunoreactivity in the nuclear fraction. RGS7 and Gbeta(5) were tightly complexed in the brain nuclear extract as evidenced by their coimmunoprecipitation with anti-RGS7 antibodies. Chimeric protein constructs containing green fluorescent protein fused to wild-type Gbeta(5) but not green fluorescent fusion proteins with Gbeta(1) or a mutant Gbeta(5) impaired in its ability to bind to RGS7 demonstrated nuclear localization in transfected PC12 cells. These findings suggest that Gbeta(5) undergoes nuclear translocation in neurons via an RGS-dependent mechanism. The novel intracellular distribution of Gbeta(5).RGS protein complexes suggests a potential role in neurons communicating between classical heterotrimeric G protein subunits and/or their effectors at the plasma membrane and the cell nucleus.

Expression levels of RGS7 and RGS4 proteins determine the mode of regulation of the G protein-activated K(+) channel and control regulation of RGS7 by G beta 5

Regulators of G protein signaling RGS4 and RGS7 accelerate the kinetics of K(+) channels (GIRKs) in the Xenopus oocyte system. Here, via quantitative analysis of RGS expression, we reveal biphasic effects of RGSs on GIRK regulation. At low concentrations, RGS4 inhibited basal GIRK activity, but stimulated it at high concentrations. RGS7, which is associated with the G protein subunit G beta 5, is regulated by G beta 5 by two distinct mechanisms. First, G beta 5 augments RGS7 activity, and second, it increases its expression. These dual effects resolve previous controversies regarding RGS4 and RGS7 function and indicate that they modulate signaling by mechanisms supplementary to their GTPase-activating protein activity.

GTPase-activating proteins for heterotrimeric G proteins: regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) and RGS-like proteins

GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) regulate heterotrimeric G proteins by increasing the rates at which their subunits hydrolyze bound GTP and thus return to the inactive state. G protein GAPs act allosterically on G subunits, in contrast to GAPs for the Ras-like monomeric GTP-binding proteins. Although they do not contribute directly to the chemistry of GTP hydrolysis, G protein GAPs can accelerate hydrolysis >2000-fold. G protein GAPs include both effector proteins (phospholipase C-¿, p115RhoGEF) and a growing family of regulators of G protein signaling (RGS proteins) that are found throughout the animal and fungal kingdoms. GAP activity can sharpen the termination of a signal upon removal of stimulus, attenuate a signal either as a feedback inhibitor or in response to a second input, promote regulatory association of other proteins, or redirect signaling within a G protein signaling network. GAPs are regulated by various controls of their cellular concentrations, by complex interactions with G¿ or with G¿5 through an endogenous G-like domain, and by interaction with multiple other proteins.

Two RGS proteins that inhibit Galpha(o) and Galpha(q) signaling in C. elegans neurons require a Gbeta(5)-like subunit for function

BACKGROUND

Gbeta proteins have traditionally been thought to complex with Ggamma proteins to function as subunits of G protein heterotrimers. The divergent Gbeta(5) protein, however, can bind either Ggamma proteins or regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins that contain a G gamma-like (GGL) domain. RGS proteins inhibit G protein signaling by acting as Galpha GTPase activators. While Gbeta(5) appears to bind RGS proteins in vivo, its association with Ggamma proteins in vivo has not been clearly demonstrated. It is unclear how Gbeta(5) might influence RGS activity. In C. elegans there are exactly two GGL-containing RGS proteins, EGL-10 and EAT-16, and they inhibit Galpha(o) and Galpha(q) signaling, respectively.

RESULTS

We knocked out the gene encoding the C. elegans Gbeta(5) ortholog, GPB-2, to determine its physiological roles in G protein signaling. The gpb-2 mutation reduces the functions of EGL-10 and EAT-16 to levels comparable to those found in egl-10 and eat-16 null mutants. gpb-2 knockout animals are viable, and exhibit no obvious defects beyond those that can be attributed to a reduction of EGL-10 or EAT-16 function. GPB-2 protein is nearly absent in eat-16; egl-10 double mutants, and EGL-10 protein is severely diminished in gpb-2 mutants.

CONCLUSIONS

Gbeta(5) functions in vivo complexed with GGL-containing RGS proteins. In the absence of Gbeta(5), these RGS proteins have little or no function. The formation of RGS-Gbeta(5) complexes is required for the expression or stability of both the RGS and Gbeta(5) proteins. Appropriate RGS-Gbeta(5) complexes regulate both Galpha(o) and Galpha(q) proteins in vivo.

Modules in the photoreceptor RGS9-1.Gbeta 5L GTPase-accelerating protein complex control effector coupling, GTPase acceleration, protein folding, and stability

RGS (regulators of G protein signaling) proteins regulate G protein signaling by accelerating GTP hydrolysis, but little is known about regulation of GTPase-accelerating protein (GAP) activities or roles of domains and subunits outside the catalytic cores. RGS9-1 is the GAP required for rapid recovery of light responses in vertebrate photoreceptors and the only mammalian RGS protein with a defined physiological function. It belongs to an RGS subfamily whose members have multiple domains, including G(gamma)-like domains that bind G(beta)(5) proteins. Members of this subfamily play important roles in neuronal signaling. Within the GAP complex organized around the RGS domain of RGS9-1, we have identified a functional role for the G(gamma)-like-G(beta)(5L) complex in regulation of GAP activity by an effector subunit, cGMP phosphodiesterase gamma and in protein folding and stability of RGS9-1. The C-terminal domain of RGS9-1 also plays a major role in conferring effector stimulation. The sequence of the RGS domain determines whether the sign of the effector effect will be positive or negative. These roles were observed in vitro using full-length proteins or fragments for RGS9-1, RGS7, G(beta)(5S), and G(beta)(5L). The dependence of RGS9-1 on G(beta)(5) co-expression for folding, stability, and function has been confirmed in vivo using transgenic Xenopus laevis. These results reveal how multiple domains and regulatory polypeptides work together to fine tune G(talpha) inactivation.

Rapid kinetics of regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS)-mediated Galphai and Galphao deactivation. Galpha specificity of RGS4 AND RGS7

Regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) proteins accelerate GTP hydrolysis by Galpha subunits speeding deactivation. Galpha deactivation kinetics mediated by RGS are too fast to be directly studied using conventional radiochemical methods. We describe a stopped-flow spectroscopic approach to visualize these rapid kinetics by measuring the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence decrease of Galpha accompanying GTP hydrolysis and Galpha deactivation on the millisecond time scale. Basal k(cat) values for Galpha(o), Galpha(i1), and Galpha(i2) at 20 degrees C were similar (0.025-0.033 s(-1)). Glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins containing RGS4 and an RGS7 box domain (amino acids 305-453) enhanced the rate of Galpha deactivation in a manner linear with RGS concentration. RGS4-stimulated rates could be measured up to 5 s(-1) at 3 microm, giving a catalytic efficiency of 1.7-2.8 x 10(6) m(-1) s(-1) for all three Galpha subunits. In contrast, RGS7 showed catalytic efficiencies of 0.44, 0.10, and 0.02 x 10(6) m(-1) s(-1) toward Galpha(o), Galpha(i2), and Galpha(i1), respectively. Thus RGS7 is a weaker GTPase activating protein than RGS4 toward all Galpha subunits tested, but it is specific for Galpha(o) over Galpha(i1) or Galpha(i2). Furthermore, the specificity of RGS7 for Galpha(o) does not depend on N- or C-terminal extensions or a Gbeta(5) subunit but resides in the RGS domain itself.

Gbetagamma subunit combinations differentially modulate receptor and effector coupling in vivo

In vitro, little specificity is seen for modulation of effectors by different combinations of Gbetagamma subunits from heterotrimeric G proteins. Here, we demonstrate that the coupling of specific combinations of Gbetagamma subunits to different receptors leads to a differential ability to modulate effectors in vivo. We have shown that the beta(1)AR and beta(2)AR can activate homomultimers of the human inwardly rectifying potassium channel Kir 3.2 when coexpressed in Xenopus oocytes, and that this requires a functional mammalian Gs heterotrimer. Modulation was independent of cAMP production, suggesting a membrane-delimited mechanism. To analyze further the importance of different Gbetagamma combinations, we have tested the facilitation of Kir 3.2 activation by betaAR mediated by different Gbetagamma subunits. The subunits tested were Gbeta(1,5) and Ggamma(1,2,7,11). These experiments demonstrated significant variation between the ability of the Gbetagamma combinations to activate the channels after receptor stimulation. This was in marked contrast to the situation in vitro where little specificity for binding of a Kir 3.1 C-terminal GST fusion protein by different Gbetagamma combinations was detected. More importantly, neither receptor, although homologous both structurally and functionally, shared the same preference for Gbetagamma subunits. In the presence of beta(1)AR, Gbeta(5)gamma(1) and Gbeta(5)gamma(11) activated Kir 3.2 to the greatest extent, while for the beta(2)AR, Gbeta(1)gamma(7), Gbeta(1)gamma(11,) and Gbeta(5)gamma(2) produced the greatest responses. Interestingly, no preference was seen in the ability of different Gbetagamma subunits to facilitate receptor-stimulated GTPase activity of the Gsalpha. These results suggest that it is not the receptor/G protein alpha subunit interaction or the Gbetagamma/effector interaction that is altered by Gbetagamma, but rather that the ability of the receptor to interact productively with the Gbetagamma subunit directly and/or the G protein/effector complex is dependent on the specific G protein heterotrimer associated with the receptor.

Regulators of G protein signaling: a bestiary of modular protein binding domains

Members of the newly discovered regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) families of proteins have a common RGS domain. This RGS domain is necessary for conferring upon RGS proteins the capacity to regulate negatively a variety of Galpha protein subunits. However, RGS proteins are more than simply negative regulators of signaling. RGS proteins can function as effector antagonists, and recent evidence suggests that RGS proteins can have positive effects on signaling as well. Many RGS proteins possess additional C- and N-terminal modular protein-binding domains and motifs. The presence of these additional modules within the RGS proteins provides for multiple novel regulatory interactions performed by these molecules. These regions are involved in conferring regulatory selectivity to specific Galpha-coupled signaling pathways, enhancing the efficacy of the RGS domain, and the translocation or targeting of RGS proteins to intracellular membranes. In other instances, these domains are involved in cross-talk between different Galpha-coupled signaling pathways and, in some cases, likely serve to integrate small GTPases with these G protein signaling pathways. This review discusses these C- and N-terminal domains and their roles in the biology of the brain-enriched RGS proteins. Methods that can be used to investigate the function of these domains are also discussed.

The regulator of G protein signaling family

Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins are responsible for the rapid turnoff of G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathways. The major mechanism whereby RGS proteins negatively regulate G proteins is via the GTPase activating protein activity of their RGS domain. Structural and mutational analyses have characterized the RGS/G alpha interaction in detail, explaining the molecular mechanisms of the GTPase activating protein activity of RGS proteins. More than 20 RGS proteins have been isolated, and there are indications that specific RGS proteins regulate specific G protein-coupled receptor pathways. This specificity is probably created by a combination of cell type-specific expression, tissue distribution, intracellular localization, posttranslational modifications, and domains other than the RGS domain that link them to other signaling pathways. In this review we discuss what has been learned so far about the role of RGS proteins in regulating G protein-coupled receptor signaling and point out areas that may be fruitful for future research.

Complexes of the G protein subunit gbeta 5 with the regulators of G protein signaling RGS7 and RGS9. Characterization in native tissues and in transfected cells

A novel protein class, termed regulators of G protein signaling (RGS), negatively regulates G protein pathways through a direct interaction with Galpha subunits and stimulation of GTP hydrolysis. An RGS subfamily including RGS6, -7, -9, and -11, which contain a characteristic Ggamma -like domain, also has the unique ability to interact with the G protein beta subunit Gbeta(5). Here, we examined the behavior of Gbeta(5), RGS7, RGS9, and Galpha in tissue extracts using immunoprecipitation and conventional chromatography. Native Gbeta(5) and RGS7 from brain, as well as photoreceptor-specific Gbeta(5)L and RGS9, always co-purified as tightly associated dimers, and neither RGS-free Gbeta(5) nor Gbeta(5)-free RGS could be detected. Co-expression in COS-7 cells of Gbeta(5) dramatically increased the protein level of RGS7 and vice versa, indicating that cells maintain Gbeta(5):RGS stoichiometry in a manner similar to Gbetagamma complexes. This mechanism is non-transcriptional and is based on increased protein stability upon dimerization. Thus, analysis of native Gbeta(5)-RGS and their coupled expression argue that in vivo, Gbeta(5) and Ggamma-like domain-containing RGSs only exist as heterodimers. Native Gbeta(5)-RGS7 did not co-precipitate or co-purify with Galpha(o) or Galpha(q); nor did Gbeta(5)L-RGS9 with Galpha(t). However, in transfected cells, RGS7 and Gbeta(5)-RGS7 inhibited Galpha(q)-mediated Ca(2+) response to muscarinic M3 receptor activation. Thus, Gbeta(5)-RGS dimers differ from other RGS proteins in that they do not bind to Galpha with high affinity, but they can still inhibit G protein signaling.

Differential expression of the G protein beta(5) gene: analysis of mouse brain, peripheral tissues, and cultured cell lines

A neurally expressed heterotrimeric G protein beta subunit, Gbeta(5), has been found to exhibit functional specialization with respect to its interactions with effector targets and Galpha subunits. A splice variant of Gbeta(5) that contains an N-terminal 42-residue extension, Gbeta(5)-long, has been described in the retina. To define better the potential range of its specialized interactions, analysis of Gbeta(5) gene transcript and protein expression in mouse brain and other tissues and cell lines was performed. Quantification by ribonuclease protection assay of Gbeta(5) transcript expression in the developing brain demonstrates a fivefold increase that occurs postnatally. Analysis of transcript expression by in situ hybridization and ribonuclease protection assay indicates that the Gbeta(5) gene is differentially expressed among multiple adult mouse brain regions, including the motor and occipital cortex, the olfactory bulb and associated rhinencephalic structures, hypothalamus, pontine cochlear nuclei, and Purkinje cells in the cerebellum. Gbeta(5) is also expressed in several cultured cell lines of neuroendocrine origin, including murine alphaT3-1 pituitary gonadotrophs and GT1-7 hypothalamic cells, and rat PC12 pheochromocytoma cells. Immunoblotting of tissue homogenates with antibodies to two peptides common to Gbeta(5) and Gbeta(5)-long confirmed expression of Gbeta(5) in multiple brain regions and in spinal cord and expression of Gbeta(5)-long in retina. Taken together, these results suggest that the specialized molecular properties of Gbeta(5) have been adapted to diverse neural functions in the adult brain.

Gbeta 5gamma 2 is a highly selective activator of phospholipid-dependent enzymes

In this study, Gbeta specificity in the regulation of Gbetagamma-sensitive phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) and phospholipase Cbeta (PLCbeta) isozymes was examined. Recombinant mammalian Gbeta(1-3)gamma(2) complexes purified from Sf9 membranes stimulated PI3Kgamma lipid kinase activity with similar potency (10-30 nm) and efficacy, whereas transducin Gbetagamma was less potent. Functionally active Gbeta(5)gamma(2) dimers were purified from Sf9 cell membranes following coexpression of Gbeta(5) and Ggamma(2-His). This preparation as well as Gbeta(1)gamma(2-His) supported pertussis toxin-mediated ADP-ribosylation of Galpha(i1). Gbeta(1)gamma(2-His) stimulated PI3Kgamma lipid and protein kinase activities at nanomolar concentrations, whereas Gbeta(5)gamma(2-His) had no effect. Accordingly, Gbeta(1)gamma(2-His), but not Gbeta(5)gamma(2-His), significantly stimulated the lipid kinase activity of PI3Kbeta in the presence or absence of tyrosine-phosphorylated peptides derived from the p85-binding domain of the platelet derived-growth factor receptor. Conversely, both preparations were able to stimulate PLCbeta(2) and PLCbeta(1). However, Gbeta(1)gamma(2-His), but not Gbeta(5)gamma(2-His), activated PLCbeta(3). Experimental evidence suggests that the mechanism of Gbeta(5)-dependent effector selectivity may differ between PI3K and PLCbeta. In conclusion, these data indicate that Gbeta subunits are able to discriminate among effectors independently of Galpha due to selective protein-protein interaction.

RGS7 complex formation and colocalization with the Gbeta5 subunit in the adult rat brain and influence on Gbeta5gamma2-mediated PLCbeta signaling

This study describes the colocalized distribution and dimeric complex formation between RGS7, a GTPase-activating protein for several heterotrimeric Galpha protein families, and the Gbeta5 subunit in the adult rat brain. Confocal dual immunofluorescence labeling studies indicated a broad regional specificity in the cellular coexpression between RGS7 and Gbeta5 within the cerebral cortical layers I and V-VI, hippocampal formation, caudate-putamen, medial habenula, most thalamic nuclei, and cerebellar molecular and granular layers. In all instances, Gbeta1-beta4 immunoreactivities exhibited no observable colocalization with RGS7, despite their widespread codistribution throughout similar neuronal networks. Coimmunoprecipitation studies confirmed the selective protein-protein interaction between RGS7 and Gbeta5 within brain regions that displayed immunohistochemical colocalization. The influence of RGS7 to modulate Gbeta5gamma2-mediated phosphatidyl inositol (PI) production was examined in COS-7-cotransfected cells. In the presence of Gbeta5gamma2 only, intracellular PI accumulation was increased by 25% above basal levels; addition of RGS7 produced no significant alteration in Gbeta5gamma2-mediated PI accumulation. A similar trend was exhibited when full-length RGS7 was substituted with an RGS7 construct lacking the Gbeta5-interacting region (G protein gamma-like domain; GGL domain) or with RGS4. In conclusion, RGS7/Gbeta5 dimers occurred within most brain regions in which both proteins were cellularly coexpressed. However, an influence of RGS7 on Gbeta5gamma2-mediated PLCbeta signaling activity was not apparent, athough this was in COS-7 cell transfection studies.

New dimensions in G protein signalling: G beta 5 and the RGS proteins

The beta gamma complex of G-proteins regulates effectors independently of the G alpha subunits, such that upon activation G proteins give may signal downstream along one or both pathways. The G beta 5 isoform exhibits much less homology with other G beta isoforms (approximately 50%) and is preferentially expressed in brain. The G beta 5 isoform exhibits novel properties in its activation of effector pathways such as MAPK, phospholipase C-beta, and adenylyl cyclase type II when compared to G beta 1. Recently specific native complexes between G beta 5 and the regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) protein-7 (RGS7) and between G beta 5L (a splice variant with a 42 amino acid N-terminal extension) and RGS9 have been isolated from different retinal fractions. Such findings are not accounted for by current models as only the G alpha subunits and not G beta had been previously implicated in RGS protein function. These recent novel observations further reinforce the view of G beta 5 as a unique and highly specialized G protein subunit.

A regulator of G protein signaling interaction surface linked to effector specificity

Proteins of the regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) family accelerate GTP hydrolysis by the alpha subunits (G(alpha)) of G proteins, leading to rapid recovery of signaling cascades. Many different RGS proteins can accelerate GTP hydrolysis by an individual G(alpha), and GTP hydrolysis rates of different G(alpha)s can be enhanced by the same RGS protein. Consequently, the mechanisms for specificity in RGS regulation and the residues involved remain unclear. Using the evolutionary trace (ET) method, we have identified a cluster of residues in the RGS domain that includes the RGS-G(alpha) binding interface and extends to include additional functionally important residues on the surface. One of these is within helix alpha3, two are in alpha5, and three are in the loop connecting alpha5 and alpha6. A cluster of surface residues on G(alpha) previously identified by ET, and composed predominantly of residues from the switch III region and helix alpha3, is spatially contiguous with the ET-identified residues in the RGS domain. This cluster includes residues proposed to interact with the gamma subunit of G(talpha)'s effector, cGMP phosphodiesterase (PDEgamma). The proximity of these clusters suggests that they form part of an interface between the effector and the RGS-G(alpha) complex. Sequence variations in these residues correlate with PDEgamma effects on GTPase acceleration. Because ET identifies residues important for all members of a protein family, these residues likely form a general site for regulation of G protein-coupled signaling cascades, possibly by means of effector interactions.

Co-expression of Gbeta5 enhances the function of two Ggamma subunit-like domain-containing regulators of G protein signaling proteins

Regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) stimulate the GTPase activity of G protein Galpha subunits and probably play additional roles. Some RGS proteins contain a Ggamma subunit-like (GGL) domain, which mediates a specific interaction with Gbeta5. The role of such interactions in RGS function is unclear. RGS proteins can accelerate the kinetics of coupling of G protein-coupled receptors to G-protein-gated inwardly rectifying K(+) (GIRK) channels. Therefore, we coupled m2-muscarinic acetylcholine receptors to GIRK channels in Xenopus oocytes to evaluate the effect of Gbeta5 on RGS function. Co-expression of either RGS7 or RGS9 modestly accelerated GIRK channel kinetics. When Gbeta5 was co-expressed with either RGS7 or RGS9, the acceleration of GIRK channel kinetics was strongly increased over that produced by RGS7 or RGS9 alone. RGS function was not enhanced by co-expression of Gbeta1, and co-expression of Gbeta5 alone had no effect on GIRK channel kinetics. Gbeta5 did not modulate the function either of RGS4, an RGS protein that lacks a GGL domain, or of a functional RGS7 construct in which the GGL domain was omitted. Enhancement of RGS7 function by Gbeta5 was not a consequence of an increase in the amount of plasma membrane or cytosolic RGS7 protein.

Slowed recovery of rod photoresponse in mice lacking the GTPase accelerating protein RGS9-1

Timely deactivation of the alpha-subunit of the rod G-protein transducin (Galphat) is essential for the temporal resolution of rod vision. Regulators of G-protein signalling (RGS) proteins accelerate hydrolysis of GTP by the alpha-subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins in vitro. Several retinal RGS proteins can act in vitro as GTPase accelerating proteins (GAP) for Galphat. Recent reconstitution experiments indicate that one of these, RGS9-1, may account for much of the Galphat GAP activity in rod outer segments (ROS). Here we report that ROS membranes from mice lacking RGS9-1 hydrolyse GTP more slowly than ROS membranes from control mice. The Gbeta5-L protein that forms a complex with RGS9-1 was absent from RGS9-/- retinas, although Gbeta5-L messenger RNA was still present. The flash responses of RGS9-/- rods rose normally, but recovered much more slowly than normal. We conclude that RGS9-1, probably in a complex with Gbeta5-L, is essential for acceleration of hydrolysis of GTP by Galphat and for normal recovery of the photoresponse.

Regulators of G protein signaling 6 and 7. Purification of complexes with gbeta5 and assessment of their effects on g protein-mediated signaling pathways

Regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins that contain DEP (disheveled, EGL-10, pleckstrin) and GGL (G protein gamma subunit-like) domains form a subfamily that includes the mammalian RGS proteins RGS6, RGS7, RGS9, and RGS11. We describe the cloning of RGS6 cDNA, the specificity of interaction of RGS6 and RGS7 with G protein beta subunits, and certain biochemical properties of RGS6/beta5 and RGS7/beta5 complexes. After expression in Sf9 cells, complexes of both RGS6 and RGS7 with the Gbeta5 subunit (but not Gbetas 1-4) are found in the cytosol. When purified, these complexes are similar to RGS11/beta5 in that they act as GTPase-activating proteins specifically toward Galpha(o). Unlike conventional G(betagamma) complexes, RGS6/beta5 and RGS7/beta5 do not form heterotrimeric complexes with either Galpha(o)-GDP or Galpha(q)-GDP. Neither RGS6/beta5 nor RGS7/beta5 altered the activity of adenylyl cyclases types I, II, or V, nor were they able to activate either phospholipase C-beta1 or -beta2. However, the RGS/beta5 complexes inhibited beta(1)gamma(2)-mediated activation of phospholipase C-beta2. RGS/beta5 complexes may contribute to the selectivity of signal transduction initiated by receptors coupled to G(i) and G(o) by binding to phospholipase C and stimulating the GTPase activity of Galpha(o).

Fidelity of G protein beta-subunit association by the G protein gamma-subunit-like domains of RGS6, RGS7, and RGS11

Several regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins contain a G protein gamma-subunit-like (GGL) domain, which, as we have shown, binds to Gbeta5 subunits. Here, we extend our original findings by describing another GGL-domain-containing RGS, human RGS6. When RGS6 is coexpressed with different Gbeta subunits, only RGS6 and Gbeta5 interact. The expression of mRNA for RGS6 and Gbeta5 in human tissues overlaps. Predictions of alpha-helical and coiled-coil character within GGL domains, coupled with measurements of Gbeta binding by GGL domain mutants, support the contention that Ggamma-like regions within RGS proteins interact with Gbeta5 subunits in a fashion comparable to conventional Gbeta/Ggamma pairings. Mutation of the highly conserved Phe-61 residue of Ggamma2 to tryptophan, the residue present in all GGL domains, increases the stability of the Gbeta5/Ggamma2 heterodimer, highlighting the importance of this residue to GGL/Gbeta5 association.