Co-chaperone FKBP38 promotes HERG trafficking

FKBP38 peptidylprolyl isomerase promotes the folding of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator in the endoplasmic reticulum

FK506-binding protein 38 (FKBP38), a membrane-anchored, tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR)-containing immunophilin, associates with nascent plasma membrane ion channels in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It promotes the maturation of the human ether-à-go-go-related gene (HERG) potassium channel and maintains the steady state level of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Using a combination of steady state and pulse-chase analyses, we show that FKBP38 knockdown increases protein synthesis but inhibits the post-translational folding of CFTR, leading to reduced steady state levels of CFTR in the ER, decreased processing, and impaired cell surface functional expression in Calu-3 human airway epithelial cells. The membrane anchorage of FKBP38 is necessary for the inhibition of protein synthesis but not for CFTR post-translational folding. In contrast, the peptidylprolyl cis/trans isomerase active site is utilized to promote CFTR post-translational folding but is not important for regulation of protein synthesis. Uncoupling FKBP38 from Hsp90 by substituting a conserved lysine in the TPR domain modestly enhances CFTR maturation and further reduces its synthesis. Removing the N-terminal glutamate-rich domain (ERD) slightly enhances CFTR synthesis but reduces its maturation, suggesting that the ERD contributes to FKBP38 biological activities. Our data support a dual role for FKBP38 in regulating CFTR synthesis and post-translational folding. In contrast to earlier prediction but consistent with in vitro enzymological studies, FKBP38 peptidylprolyl cis/trans isomerase plays an important role in membrane protein biogenesis on the cytoplasmic side of the ER membrane, whose activity is negatively regulated by Hsp90 through the TPR domain.

From cell death to viral replication: the diverse functions of the membrane-associated FKBP38

FKBP38 is in many ways an exceptional member of the FK506-binding proteins. The calmodulin-regulated activity of FKBP38 for instance is unique within this protein family. The activated FKBP38 participates in apoptosis signaling by inhibiting the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2. Beyond this role in programmed cell death, FKBP38 seems to be involved in very different cellular processes that do not necessarily depend on the FKBP domain. These functions involve regulation of the kinase mTOR, regulation of neural tube formation, regulation of cellular hypoxia response, but also Hepatitis C virus replication. Pharmacological targeting of FKBP38 might therefore prove a successful strategy for intervention in different FKBP38-dependent processes, including programmed cell death in cancer or neurodegenerative diseases.

Trafficking defect and proteasomal degradation contribute to the phenotype of a novel KCNH2 long QT syndrome mutation

The Kv11.1 (hERG) K⁺ channel plays a fundamental role in cardiac repolarization. Missense mutations in KCNH2, the gene encoding Kv11.1, cause long QT syndrome (LQTS) and frequently cause channel trafficking-deficiencies. This study characterized the properties of a novel KCNH2 mutation discovered in a LQT2 patient resuscitated from a ventricular fibrillation arrest. Proband genotyping was performed by SSCP and DNA sequencing. The electrophysiological and biochemical properties of the mutant channel were investigated after expression in HEK293 cells. The proband manifested a QTc of 554 ms prior to electrolyte normalization. Mutation analysis revealed an autosomal dominant frameshift mutation at proline 1086 (P1086fs+32X; 3256InsG). Co-immunoprecipitation demonstrated that wild-type Kv11.1 and mutant channels coassemble. Western blot showed that the mutation did not produce mature complex-glycosylated Kv11.1 channels and coexpression resulted in reduced channel maturation. Electrophysiological recordings revealed mutant channel peak currents to be similar to untransfected cells. Co-expression of channels in a 1∶1 ratio demonstrated dominant negative suppression of peak Kv11.1 currents. Immunocytochemistry confirmed that mutant channels were not present at the plasma membrane. Mutant channel trafficking rescue was attempted by incubation at reduced temperature or with the pharmacological agents E-4031. These treatments did not significantly increase peak mutant currents or induce the formation of mature complex-glycosylated channels. The proteasomal inhibitor lactacystin increased the protein levels of the mutant channels demonstrating proteasomal degradation, but failed to induce mutant Kv11.1 protein trafficking. Our study demonstrates a novel dominant-negative Kv11.1 mutation, which results in degraded non-functional channels leading to a LQT2 phenotype.

Reciprocal control of hERG stability by Hsp70 and Hsc70 with implication for restoration of LQT2 mutant stability

RATIONALE

The human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG) encodes the α subunit of the potassium current I(Kr). It is highly expressed in cardiomyocytes and its mutations cause long QT syndrome type 2. Heat shock protein (Hsp)70 is known to promote maturation of hERG. Hsp70 and heat shock cognate (Hsc70) 70 has been suggested to play a similar function. However, Hsc70 has recently been reported to counteract Hsp70.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated whether Hsc70 counteracts Hsp70 in the control of wild-type and mutant hERG stability.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Coexpression of Hsp70 with hERG in HEK293 cells suppressed hERG ubiquitination and increased the levels of both immature and mature forms of hERG. Immunocytochemistry revealed increased levels of hERG in the endoplasmic reticulum and on the cell surface. Electrophysiological studies showed increased I(Kr). All these effects of Hsp70 were abolished by Hsc70 coexpression. Heat shock treatment of HL-1 mouse cardiomyocytes induced endogenous Hsp70, switched mouse ERG associated with Hsc70 to Hsp70, increased I(Kr), and shortened action potential duration. Channels with disease-causing missense mutations in intracellular domains had a higher binding capacity to Hsc70 than wild-type channels and channels with mutations in the pore region. Knockdown of Hsc70 by small interfering RNA or heat shock prevented degradation of mutant hERG proteins with mutations in intracellular domains.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate reciprocal control of hERG stability by Hsp70 and Hsc70. Hsc70 is a potential target in the treatment of LQT2 resulting from missense hERG mutations.

Rescue of mutated cardiac ion channels in inherited arrhythmia syndromes

Inherited arrhythmia syndromes comprise an increasingly complex group of diseases involving mutations in multiple genes encoding ion channels, ion channel accessory subunits and channel interacting proteins, and various regulatory elements. These mutations serve to disrupt normal electrophysiology in the heart, leading to increased arrhythmogenic risk and death. These diseases have added impact as they often affect young people, sometimes without warning. Although originally thought to alter ion channel function, it is now increasingly recognized that mutations may alter ion channel protein and messenger RNA processing, to reduce the number of channels reaching the surface membrane. For many of these mutations, it is also known that several interventions may restore protein processing of mutant channels to increase their surface membrane expression toward normal. In this article, we reviewed inherited arrhythmia syndromes, focusing on long QT syndrome type 2, and discuss the complex biology of ion channel trafficking and pharmacological rescue of disease-causing mutant channels. Pharmacological rescue of misprocessed mutant channel proteins, or their transcripts providing appropriate small molecule drugs can be developed, has the potential for novel clinical therapies in some patients with inherited arrhythmia syndromes.

Emerging concepts in the pharmacogenomics of arrhythmias: ion channel trafficking

Continuous, rhythmic beating of the heart requires exquisite control of expression, localization and function of cardiac ion channels - the foundations of the cardiac myocyte action potential. Disruption of any of these processes can alter the shape of the action potential, predisposing to cardiac arrhythmias. These arrhythmias can manifest in a variety of ways depending on both the channels involved and the type of disruption (i.e., gain or loss of function). As much as 1% of the population of developed countries is affected by cardiac arrhythmia each year, and a detailed understanding of the mechanism of each arrhythmia is crucial to developing and prescribing the proper therapies. Many of the antiarrhythmic drugs currently on the market were developed before the underlying cause of the arrhythmia was known, and as a result lack specificity, causing side effects. The majority of the available drugs target the conductance of cardiac ion channels, either by blocking or enhancing current through the channel. In recent years, however, it has become apparent that specific targeting of ion channel conductance may not be the most effective means for treatment. Here we review increasing evidence that suggests defects in ion channel trafficking play an important role in the etiology of arrhythmias, and small molecule approaches to correct trafficking defects will likely play an important role in the future of arrhythmia treatment.

The Hop/Sti1-Hsp90 chaperone complex facilitates the maturation and transport of a PAMP receptor in rice innate immunity

Recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) represents a critical first step of innate defense in plants and animals. However, maturation and transport of PRRs are not well understood. We find that the rice chitin receptor OsCERK1 interacts with Hsp90 and its cochaperone Hop/Sti1 in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Hop/Sti1 and Hsp90 are required for efficient transport of OsCERK1 from the ER to the plasma membrane (PM) via a pathway dependent on Sar1, a small GTPase which regulates ER-to-Golgi trafficking. Further, Hop/Sti1 and Hsp90 are present at the PM in a complex (designated the "defensome") with OsRac1, a plant-specific Rho-type GTPase. Finally, Hop/Sti1 was required for chitin-triggered immunity and resistance to rice blast fungus. Our results suggest that the Hop/Sti1-Hsp90 chaperone complex plays an important and likely conserved role in the maturation and transport of PRRs and may function to link PRRs and Rac/Rop GTPases.

Role of Hsp90 in biogenesis of the beta-cell ATP-sensitive potassium channel complex

The study identifies Hsp90 as a molecular chaperone for K_ATP channels. Inhibition of Hsp90 function reduces, whereas overexpression of Hsp90 enhances, channel expression at the cell surface. Hsp90 facilitates channel biogenesis by targeting the SUR1 subunit. Up-regulation of Hsp90 also enhances expression of some SUR1 mutants with folding defects.

The pancreatic β-cell ATP-sensitive potassium (K_ATP) channel is a multimeric protein complex composed of four inwardly rectifying potassium channel (Kir6.2) and four sulfonylurea receptor 1 (SUR1) subunits. K_ATP channels play a key role in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion by linking glucose metabolism to membrane excitability. Many SUR1 and Kir6.2 mutations reduce channel function by disrupting channel biogenesis and processing, resulting in insulin secretion disease. To better understand the mechanisms governing K_ATP channel biogenesis, a proteomics approach was used to identify chaperone proteins associated with K_ATP channels. We report that chaperone proteins heat-shock protein (Hsp)90, heat-shock cognate protein (Hsc)70, and Hsp40 are associated with β-cell K_ATP channels. Pharmacologic inhibition of Hsp90 function by geldanamycin reduces, whereas overexpression of Hsp90 increases surface expression of wild-type K_ATP channels. Coimmunoprecipitation data indicate that channel association with the Hsp90 complex is mediated through SUR1. Accordingly, manipulation of Hsp90 protein expression or function has significant effects on the biogenesis efficiency of SUR1, but not Kir6.2, expressed alone. Interestingly, overexpression of Hsp90 selectively improved surface expression of mutant channels harboring a subset of disease-causing SUR1 processing mutations. Our study demonstrates that Hsp90 regulates biogenesis efficiency of heteromeric K_ATP channels via SUR1, thereby affecting functional expression of the channel in β-cell membrane.

A Drosophila behavioral mutant, down and out (dao), is defective in an essential regulator of Erg potassium channels

To signal properly, excitable cells must establish and maintain the correct balance of various types of ion channels that increase or decrease membrane excitability. The mechanisms by which this balance is regulated remain largely unknown. Here, we describe a regulatory mechanism uncovered by a Drosophila behavioral mutant, down and out (dao). At elevated temperatures, dao loss-of-function mutants exhibit seizures associated with spontaneous bursts of neural activity. This phenotype closely resembles that of seizure mutations, which impair activity of ether-a-go-go-related gene (Erg)-type potassium channels. Conversely, neural over-expression of wild-type Dao confers dominant temperature-sensitive paralysis with kinetics reminiscent of paralytic sodium-channel mutants. The over-expression phenotype of dao is suppressed in a seizure mutant background, suggesting that Dao acts by an effect on Erg channels. In support of this hypothesis, functional expression of Erg channels in a heterologous system is dependent on the presence of Dao. These results indicate that Dao has an important role in establishing the proper level of neuronal membrane excitability by regulating functional expression of Erg channels.

Ion channel trafficking: a new therapeutic horizon for atrial fibrillation

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a common cardiac arrhythmia with potentially life-threatening complications. Drug therapies for treatment of AF that seek long-term maintenance of normal sinus rhythm remain elusive due in large part to proarrhythmic ventricular actions. Kv1.5, which underlies the atrial specific I(Kur) current, is a major focus of research efforts seeking new therapeutic strategies and targets. Recent work has shown a novel effect of antiarrhythmic drugs where compounds that block Kv1.5 channel current also can alter ion channel trafficking. This work further suggests that the pleiotropic effects of antiarrhythmic drugs may be separable. Although this finding highlights the therapeutic potential for selective manipulation of ion channel surface density, it also reveals an uncertainty regarding the specificity of modulating trafficking pathways without risk of off-target effects. Future studies may show that specific alteration of Kv1.5 trafficking can overcome the proarrhythmic limitations of current pharmacotherapy and provide an effective method for long-term cardioversion in AF.

Hsp40 chaperones promote degradation of the HERG potassium channel

Loss of function mutations in the hERG (human ether-a-go-go related gene or KCNH2) potassium channel underlie the proarrhythmic cardiac long QT syndrome type 2. Most often this is a consequence of defective trafficking of hERG mutants to the cell surface, with channel retention and degradation at the endoplasmic reticulum. Here, we identify the Hsp40 type 1 chaperones DJA1 (DNAJA1/Hdj2) and DJA2 (DNAJA2) as key modulators of hERG degradation. Overexpression of the DJAs reduces hERG trafficking efficiency, an effect eliminated by the proteasomal inhibitor lactacystin or with DJA mutants lacking their J domains essential for Hsc70/Hsp70 activation. Both DJA1 and DJA2 cause a decrease in the amount of hERG complexed with Hsc70, indicating a preferential degradation of the complex. Similar effects were observed with the E3 ubiquitin ligase CHIP. Both the DJAs and CHIP reduce hERG stability and act differentially on folding intermediates of hERG and the disease-related trafficking mutant G601S. We propose a novel role for the DJA proteins in regulating degradation and suggest that they act at a critical point in secretory pathway quality control.

Hypoxia inhibits maturation and trafficking of hERG K(+) channel protein: Role of Hsp90 and ROS

We previously reported that reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated during hypoxia decrease hERG current density and protein expression in HEK cells stably expressing hERG protein. In the present study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms involved in hypoxia-induced downregulation of hERG protein. Culturing cells at low temperatures and addition of chemical chaperones during hypoxia restored hERG expression and currents to normoxic levels while antiarrhythmic drugs, which selectively block hERG channels, had no effect on hERG protein levels. Pulse chase studies showed that hypoxia blocks maturation of the core glycosylated form in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the fully glycosylated form on the cell surface. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that hypoxia inhibited interaction of hERG with Hsp90 chaperone required for maturation, which was restored in the presence of ROS scavengers. These results demonstrate that ROS generated during hypoxia prevents maturation of the hERG protein by inhibiting Hsp90 interaction resulting in decreased protein expression and currents.

Mouse hitchhiker mutants have spina bifida, dorso-ventral patterning defects and polydactyly: identification of Tulp3 as a novel negative regulator of the Sonic hedgehog pathway

The mammalian Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signalling pathway is essential for embryonic development and the patterning of multiple organs. Disruption or activation of Shh signalling leads to multiple birth defects, including holoprosencephaly, neural tube defects and polydactyly, and in adults results in tumours of the skin or central nervous system. Genetic approaches with model organisms continue to identify novel components of the pathway, including key molecules that function as positive or negative regulators of Shh signalling. Data presented here define Tulp3 as a novel negative regulator of the Shh pathway. We have identified a new mouse mutant that is a strongly hypomorphic allele of Tulp3 and which exhibits expansion of ventral markers in the caudal spinal cord, as well as neural tube defects and preaxial polydactyly, consistent with increased Shh signalling. We demonstrate that Tulp3 acts genetically downstream of Shh and Smoothened (Smo) in neural tube patterning and exhibits a genetic interaction with Gli3 in limb development. We show that Tulp3 does not appear to alter expression or processing of Gli3, and we demonstrate that transcriptional regulation of other negative regulators (Rab23, Fkbp8, Thm1, Sufu and PKA) is not affected. We discuss the possible mechanism of action of Tulp3 in Shh-mediated signalling in light of these new data.

Structural basis of nucleotide exchange and client binding by the Hsp70 cochaperone Bag2

Cochaperones are essential for Hsp70- and Hsc70-mediated folding of proteins and include nucleotide-exchange factors (NEFs) that assist protein folding by accelerating ADP-ATP exchange on Hsp70. The cochaperone Bag2 binds misfolded Hsp70 clients and also acts as an NEF, but the molecular basis for its function is unclear. We show that, rather than being a member of the Bag domain family, Bag2 contains a new type of Hsp70 NEF domain, which we call the 'brand new bag' (BNB) domain. Free and Hsc70-bound crystal structures of Bag2-BNB show its dimeric structure, in which a flanking linker helix and loop bind to Hsc70 to promote nucleotide exchange. NMR analysis demonstrates that the client binding sites and Hsc70-interaction sites of the Bag2-BNB overlap, and that Hsc70 can displace clients from Bag2-BNB, indicating a distinct mechanism for the regulation of Hsp70-mediated protein folding by Bag2.

Human ether-a-go-go related gene (hERG) K+ channels: function and dysfunction

The human Ether-a-go-go Related Gene (hERG) potassium channel plays a central role in regulating cardiac excitability and maintenance of normal cardiac rhythm. Mutations in hERG cause a third of all cases of congenital long QT syndrome, a disorder of cardiac repolarisation characterised by prolongation of the QT interval on the surface electrocardiogram, abnormal T waves, and a risk of sudden cardiac death due to ventricular arrhythmias. Additionally, the hERG channel protein is the molecular target for almost all drugs that cause the acquired form of long QT syndrome. Advances in understanding the structural basis of hERG gating, its traffic to the cell surface, and the molecular architecture involved in drug-block of hERG, are providing the foundation for rational treatment and prevention of hERG associated long QT syndrome. This review summarises the current knowledge of hERG function and dysfunction, and the areas of ongoing research.

Re-evaluating the roles of proposed modulators of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling

Signaling through mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is stimulated by amino acids and insulin. Insulin inactivates TSC1/2, the GTPase-activator complex for Rheb, and Rheb.GTP activates mTORC1. It is not clear how amino acids regulate mTORC1. FKBP38 (immunophilin FK506-binding protein, 38 kDa), was recently reported to exert a negative effect on mTORC1 function that is relieved by its binding to Rheb.GTP. We confirm that Rheb binds wild type FKBP38, but inactive Rheb mutants showed contrasting abilities to bind FKBP38. We were unable to observe any regulation of FKBP38/mTOR binding by amino acids or insulin. Furthermore, FKBP38 did not inhibit mTORC1 signaling. The translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) in Drosophila was recently reported to act as the guanine nucleotide-exchange factor for Rheb. We have studied the role of TCTP in mammalian TORC1 signaling and its control by amino acids. Reducing TCTP levels did not reproducibly affect mTORC1 signaling in amino acid-replete/insulin-stimulated cells. Moreover, overexpressing TCTP did not rescue mTORC1 signaling in amino acid-starved cells. In addition, we were unable to see any stable interaction between TCTP and Rheb or mTORC1. Accumulation of uncharged tRNA has been previously proposed to be involved in the inhibition of mTORC1 signaling during amino acid starvation. To test this hypothesis, we used a Chinese hamster ovary cell line containing a temperature-sensitive mutation in leucyl-tRNA synthetase. Leucine deprivation markedly inhibited mTORC1 signaling in these cells, but shifting the cells to the nonpermissive temperature for the synthetase did not. These data indicate that uncharged tRNA(Leu) does not switch off mTORC1 signaling and suggest that mTORC1 is controlled by a distinct pathway that senses the availability of amino acids. Our data also indicate that, in the mammalian cell lines tested here, neither TCTP nor FKBP38 regulates mTORC1 signaling.

Drugs and trafficking of ion channels: a new pro-arrhythmic threat on the horizon?

Tuning of functional expression levels of the ion channels that make up the cardiac action potential (AP) is crucial for preserving correct AP duration (APD) and QTc times. Many compounds inhibit human ether-à-go-go related gene (hERG)-mediated delayed rectifier currents and thus prolong cardiac repolarization that may cause life-threatening arrhythmias like Torsades de Pointes. An increasing number of drugs are found to inhibit hERG function by a dual mechanism of short-term channel block and long-term trafficking defects that operate over different time and concentration scales. In safety screens at present used by pharmaceutical companies, the short-term effect of channel block is covered. In contrast, specific screening for long-term trafficking defects is not common, with the consequent risk of drugs that disturb trafficking entering the market. Whether that poses another pro-arrhythmic threat for the patients treated has to be determined, but is not unlikely.