Is physical activity a part of who I am? A review and meta-analysis of identity, schema and physical activity

Adjusting Identities When Times Change: The Role of Self-Compassion

Adjusting identity standards may be preferable to relentless pursuit or abandonment of an identity when facing an identity-challenging life transition. Self-compassion (SC) can help people adjust to challenges. The authors examined whether SC was associated with identity adjustment, exercise, and the moderating effect of identity-behavior discrepancy in 279 women exercisers who reported reduced exercise in motherhood. Participants completed the Self-Compassion Scale and reported the extent of and reflected on their identity discrepant behavior (reduced exercise). Reactions to discrepancy (acceptance, shame, guilt, and rumination), correlates of identity adjustment (subjective well-being, autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and role conflict), and exercise behavior were assessed. SC associated positively with acceptance, correlates of successful identity adjustment, and exercise behavior. SC associated negatively with shame, rumination, and correlates of unsuccessful adjustment. SC may help exercise-identifying women who exercise less after becoming mothers adaptively cope with this identity challenge and continue exercising.

What Predicts the Physical Activity Intention-Behavior Gap? A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Intention is theorized as the proximal determinant of behavior in many leading theories and yet intention-behavior discordance is prevalent.

PURPOSE

To theme and appraise the variables that have been evaluated as potential moderators of the intention-physical activity (I-PA) relationship using the capability-opportunity-motivation- behavior model as an organizational frame.

METHODS

Literature searches were concluded in August 2020 using seven common databases. Eligible studies were selected from English language peer-reviewed journals and had to report an empirical test of moderation of I-PA with a third variable. Findings were grouped by the moderator variable for the main analysis, and population sample, study design, type of PA, and study quality were explored in subanalyses.

RESULTS

The search yielded 1,197 hits, which was reduced to 129 independent studies (138 independent samples) of primarily moderate quality after screening for eligibility criteria. Moderators of the I-PA relationship were present among select variables within sociodemographic (employment status) and personality (conscientiousness) categories. Physical capability, and social and environmental opportunity did not show evidence of interacting with I-PA relations, while psychological capability had inconclusive findings. By contrast, key factors underlying reflective (intention stability, intention commitment, low goal conflict, affective attitude, anticipated regret, perceived behavioral control/self-efficacy) and automatic (identity) motivation were moderators of I-PA relations. Findings were generally invariant to study characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional intention theories may need to better account for key I-PA moderators. Action control theories that include these moderators may identify individuals at risk for not realizing their PA intentions. Prospero # CRD42020142629.

An Examination of Dweck's Psychological Needs Model in Relation to Exercise-Related Well-Being

This two-part study examined Dweck's psychological needs model in relation to exercise-related well-being and particularly focused on the basic need for optimal predictability and compound needs for identity and meaning. In Part 1 (N = 559), using exploratory factor analysis, scores derived from items assessing optimal predictability (prediction of affect and instrumental utility in exercise) were empirically distinct from scores derived from items assessing competence, relatedness, and autonomy. In Part 2, participants from Part 1 (N = 403) completed measures of exercise-related well-being 4 weeks after baseline assessment. Prediction of affect was the most consistent predictor of subsequent exercise-related well-being. An implication of these findings is that optimal predictability (primarily prediction of affect) represents a unique experience that may be necessary for thriving in the context of exercise. Prediction of affect should be targeted in experimental designs to further understand its relationship with exercise-related well-being.

Women's exercise identity increases after a 16-week exercise RCT and is linked to behavior maintenance at follow-up

BACKGROUND

Regular exercise is critical for disease prevention, but adherence to public health guidelines is poor. Exercise identity is purported to be associated with exercise behavior maintenance, but the extant literature is largely cross-sectional and of low/modest quality.

PURPOSE

To examine change in exercise identity after completion of a supervised exercise intervention, as well as associations between change in exercise identity and exercise maintenance at 6-months follow-up.

METHODS

N = 276 insufficiently physically active women were randomized to a 16-week, supervised exercise training intervention with 4 conditions fully crossed on intensity (vigorous/moderate) and duration (long/short). Exercise identity was measured pre- and post-intervention and assessments of exercise motivation and behavior frequency were collected at 6-months post-intervention follow-up.

RESULTS

On average, participants experienced a statistically significant change in exercise identity over the course of the intervention, t(128) = 7.94, p < .001, but identity change scores did not differ across training conditions, p = .91. Identity change was significantly positively related to changes in other theory-informed, motivation-based determinants of exercise, and predicted an additional 16.17 minutes of exercise per week, on average, at follow-up, b = 16.76, t(103) = 2.30, p = .023.

CONCLUSIONS

Participants experienced increased self-identification with exercise after 16-weeks of training, but training volume did not influence the amount of identity change. As expected, greater change in exercise identity was associated with higher levels of exercise behavior at 6-months post-intervention follow-up (ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02032628).

The Feasibility of Using Instagram Data to Predict Exercise Identity and Physical Activity Levels: Cross-sectional Observational Study

BACKGROUND

Exercise identity is an important predictor for regular physical activity (PA). There is a lack of research on the potential mechanisms or antecedents of identity development. Theories of exercise identity have proposed that investment, commitment and self-referential (eg, I am an exerciser) statements, and social activation (comparison, support) may be crucial to identity development. Social media may be a potential mechanism to shape identity.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this study were to (1) explore whether participants were willing to share their Instagram data with researchers to predict their lifestyle behaviors; (2) examine whether PA-related Instagram uses (ie, the percentage of PA-related Instagram posts, fitness-related followings, and the number of likes received on PA-related posts) were positively associated with exercise identity; and (3) evaluate whether exercise identity mediates the relationship between PA-related Instagram use and weekly PA minutes.

METHODS

Participants (18-30 years old) were asked to complete a questionnaire to evaluate their current levels of exercise identity and PA. Participants' Instagram data for the past 12 months before the completion of the questionnaire were extracted and analyzed with their permission. Instagram posts related to PA in the 12 months before their assessment, the number of likes received for each PA-related post, and verified fitness- or PA-related followings by the participants were extracted and analyzed. Pearson correlation analyses were used to evaluate the relationship among exercise identity, PA, and Instagram uses. We conducted mediation analyses using the PROCESS macro modeling tool to examine whether exercise identity mediated the relationship between Instagram use variables and PA. Descriptive statistical analyses were used to compare the number of willing participants versus those who were not willing to share their Instagram data.

RESULTS

Of the 76 participants recruited to participate, 54% (n=41) shared their Instagram data. The percentage of PA-related Instagram posts (r=0.38; P=.01) and fitness-related Instagram followings (r=0.39; P=.01) were significantly associated with exercise identity. The average number of "likes" received (r=0.05, P=.75) was not significantly associated with exercise identity. Exercise identity significantly influenced the relationship between Instagram usage metrics (ie, the percentage of PA-related Instagram posts [P=.01] and verified fitness-related Instagram accounts [P=.01]) and PA level. Exercise identity did not significantly influence the relationship between the average number of "likes" received for the PA-related Instagram posts and PA level.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that an increase in PA-related Instagram posts and fitness-related followings were associated with a greater sense of exercise identity. Higher exercise identity led to higher PA levels. Exercise identity significantly influenced the relationship between PA-related Instagram posts (P=.01) and fitness-related followings on PA levels (P=.01). These results suggest that Instagram may influence a person's exercise identity and PA levels. Future intervention studies are warranted.

Long COVID and the role of physical activity: a qualitative study

OBJECTIVES

To explore the lived experience of long COVID with particular focus on the role of physical activity.

DESIGN

Qualitative study using semistructured interviews.

PARTICIPANTS

18 people living with long COVID (9 men, 9 women; aged between 18-74 years; 10 white British, 3 white Other, 3 Asian, 1 black, 1 mixed ethnicity) recruited via a UK-based research interest database for people with long COVID.

SETTING

Telephone interviews with 17 participants living in the UK and 1 participant living in the USA.

RESULTS

Four themes were generated. Theme 1 describes how participants struggled with drastically reduced physical function, compounded by the cognitive and psychological effects of long COVID. Theme 2 highlights challenges associated with finding and interpreting advice about physical activity that was appropriately tailored. Theme 3 describes individual approaches to managing symptoms including fatigue and 'brain fog' while trying to resume and maintain activities of daily living and other forms of exercise. Theme 4 illustrates the battle with self-concept to accept reduced function (even temporarily) and the fear of permanent reduction in physical and cognitive ability.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides insight into the challenges of managing physical activity alongside the extended symptoms associated with long COVID. Findings highlight the need for greater clarity and tailoring of physical activity-related advice for people with long COVID and improved support to resume activities important to individual well-being.

Group exercise membership is associated with forms of social support, exercise identity, and amount of physical activity

Exploring whether the mechanisms underlying the positive relationship between group exercise and physical activity are forms of social support - emotional, validation, informational, instrumental, and companionship and exercise identity. Participants (n=506; M age = 34.3) completed a 235-item questionnaire assessing physical activity, exercise identity, social support, and other determinants of physical activity. Exploratory path analysis was used to model group exercise membership, forms of social support, exercise identity, and metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes/wk. Women and men had similar yet varying results. For women, group exercise membership was significantly associated with MET-minutes/wk (β = 0.11) and exercise identity (β = 0.17). There was a significant association between exercise identity and MET-minutes/wk (β = 0.38). Women perceived belonging to an exercise group provides emotional (β = 0.36), validation (β = 0.25), informational (β = 0.35), instrumental (β = 0.19), and companionship (β = 0.46) support. Validation (β = 0.11), informational (β = 0.21), and companionship (B = 0.17) were significantly associated with exercise identity for women. For men, group exercise membership was not significantly associated with MET-minutes/wk or exercise identity. Exercise identity was significantly associated with MET-minutes/wk (β = 0.46). Men perceived belonging to their group provides emotional (β = 0.31), validation (β = 0.32), informational (β = 0.33), and companionship (β = 0.34). Validation (β = 0.22), informational (β = 0.30), and emotional (β = 0.23) were significantly associated with exercise identity for men. Belonging to an exercise group is associated with forms of social support that strengthen exercise identity.

"Do what you can with a happy heart": a longitudinal study of patient and family members' lived experiences of physical activity post-myocardial infarction

PURPOSE

Physical activity (PA) post-myocardial infarction (MI) can reduce risk of reoccurrence and mortality. Yet uptake of PA through cardiac rehabilitation (CR) is poor, and little is known about the long-term PA behaviour of cardiac patients. This study aimed to explore the lived experiences of patients' engagement with PA post-MI, together with the experiences of their family.

METHODS

Longitudinal interviews with six family-dyads were conducted which drew on interpretative phenomenology to understand the lived experiences of PA for post-MI patients and family members.

RESULTS

Participants described a journey that involved leaving "normality" (doing what PA they wanted and when) and transitioning to a new "normality" (being active within post-MI parameters). This journey was expressed through feelings of "I can't do what I was doing before," "finding my way," and "accepting this way".

CONCLUSION

The role of family within the patient's journey was complex, with PA identity, beliefs, and fear of MI re-occurrence influencing PA support both positively and negatively. PA engagement post-MI is a dynamic and interactive process within which the family can have an important influence.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONThe process of (re-)engaging in physical activity post-myocardial infarction involves a complex journey towards acceptance of a new "normality".Family play an important role in regulating and supporting patients' physical activity during the rehabilitation process.Promoting positive health beliefs and helping families understand what, how and when patients should be physically active may optimise the rehabilitation journey for post-myocardial infarction patients.

Maintenance motives for physical activity among older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The purpose of this systematic review was to examine if the motives of satisfaction with outcomes, enjoyment of behavior, self-determination, and identity are related to physical activity (PA) maintenance in older adults. We also explored whether the strength of these associations varies as a function of sample characteristics (i.e., age, gender, physical health status) and maintenance context. Five electronic databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, SportDiscus, CINAHL, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses) were searched, and sixteen studies (k) with a sample mean age ≥ 55 years were included. When the number of studies was ≥ 5 for a given motive, a pooled correlation coefficient was calculated using the inverse-variance method under the random-effects model assumption. Self-determination was positively associated with PA maintenance [r (95% CI) = 0.189 (0.127, 0.249); k = 11]. This association was stronger and more homogeneous for samples described as having a physical health condition (r = 0.212; k = 6) and studies judged to be at risk of bias due to missing data (r = 0.223; k = 8). Few studies (< 5) investigated satisfaction with outcomes, enjoyment of behavior, and identity, which precludes any summary judgment for these three motives. PROSPERO Registration Number: CRD42018088161.

Correlates of Perceived Physical Activity Transitions during the COVID-19 Pandemic among Canadian Adults

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to explore socio-ecological predictors of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) as a result of the COVD-19 pandemic restrictions.

METHOD

A representative sample of 1,055 English-speaking Canadians (18+ years) completed measures of MVPA during the COVID-19 restrictions and reflecting on MVPA prior to these restrictions, as well as demographics, COVID-19-related cognitions and behavior (i.e. perceived threat, social distancing), psychological factors (e.g. personality traits, habit, identity, strategic planning), social factors (e.g. dependent children, co-habitation), home environment affordances (exercise equipment, programming) and the neighborhood environment (e.g. access to outdoor recreation, neighborhood safety).

RESULTS

Participants perceived that they had decreased weekly MVPA (p < .01) and the availability of home equipment and strategic planning were critical predictors (p < .01). Profiles by MVPA guidelines, however, showed that 58 per cent of the sample had not changed and 6 per cent had increased MVPA. Identity was the critical predictor of the different MVPA profiles, followed by habit, extraversion, availability of home equipment, and the age of the participant (p < .01).

CONCLUSION

Pandemic restrictions have affected the MVPA of many Canadians, and variables across the socio-ecological spectrum explain who has been able to maintain MVPA during this unprecedented time.

Increasing Physical Activity in Empty Nest and Retired Populations Online: A Randomized Feasibility Trial Protocol

Despite the extensive evidence on the benefits of physical activity (PA) in older adults, including reduced risk of disease, mortality, falls, and cognitive and functional decline, most do not attain sufficient PA levels. Theoretical work suggests that behavioral change interventions are most effective during life transitions, and as such, a theory-based, online intervention tailored for recently retired and empty nest individuals could lend support for increasing levels of PA. The aim of this study is to examine the feasibility of the intervention and study procedures for a future controlled trial. This study has a randomized controlled trial design with an embedded qualitative and quantitative process evaluation. Participants are randomized at 1:1 between the intervention and waitlist controls. Potential participants are within six months of their final child leaving the familial home or within six months of retiring (self-defined), currently not meeting the Canadian PA guidelines, have no serious contraindications to exercise, and are residing in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Participants are recruited by online and print flyers as well as in-person at community events. The study aims to recruit 40 empty nest and 40 retired participants; half of each group received the intervention during the study period. The internet-delivered intervention is delivered over a 10-week period, comprising 10 modules addressing behavior change techniques associated with PA. Primary outcomes relate to recruitment, attrition, data collection, intervention delivery, and acceptability. Secondary behavioral outcomes are measured at baseline and post-treatment (10 weeks). Intervention-selected participants are invited to an optional qualitative exit interview. The results of this feasibility study will inform the planning of a randomized effectiveness trial, that will examine the behavior change, health-related fitness, and well-being outcomes by exploring how reflexive processes of habit and identity may bridge adoption and maintenance in behavioral adherence.

The role of identity in parental support for physical activity and healthy eating among overweight and obese children

Introduction: Parental support behaviors are established predictors of children's physical activity and healthy eating. However, little is known about predictors of these parental support behaviors. Identity (i.e. a component of the self-concept) has been hypothesized to be an influential construct that may be associated with a variety of behavioral antecedents and behavior itself. Specifically, research suggests healthy eating or physical activity parental support affective attitude may predict parental identity, and that identity may predict support behavior directly and indirectly through support self-regulation (e.g. planning). Thus, this study expands on past literature by exploring these antecedents and outcomes of parental identity in the context of parental support for physical activity and healthy eating among overweight and obese children. Methods: Using a cross-sectional survey design, 83 parents (61.4% female) with at least one overweight or obese child completed measures assessing parental support affective attitude, parental identity, support self-regulation, and actual support behaviors. Path analysis was conducted to examine model fit and hypothesized relationships between variables for eating and physical activity separately. Results: For both behavioral domains, the model fit was good. Parental support affective attitude predicted parental identity, parental identity predicted support self-regulation, and support self-regulation predicted support behavior. Further, for both behaviors, support self-regulation mediated the relationship between parental identity and support behavior. Finally, parental identity also directly predicted support behavior for physical activity but not eating. Conclusions: The results demonstrate the importance of identity in parental support behaviors. These results also show that fostering enjoyable experiences for parents while supporting their children may strengthen their supportive identities.

Predicting physical activity among cancer survivors: Meta-analytic path modeling of longitudinal studies

OBJECTIVE

We conducted meta-analyses and meta-analytic structural equation modeling of longitudinal studies among cancer survivors to (a) quantify associations between psychosocial predictors and physical activity, (b) test how psychosocial predictors combine to influence physical activity, and (c) identify study, demographic, and clinical characteristics that moderate associations.

METHOD

Eligible studies used a longitudinal, observational design, included a sample of cancer survivors, and measured both a psychosocial predictor at baseline and physical activity at a later time-point. Of 2,431 records located through computerized searches, 25 independent tests (N = 5,897) met the inclusion criteria for the review. Random effects meta-analyses and meta-analytic structural equation modeling were conducted.

RESULTS

Eight psychosocial predictors of physical activity were identified. Self-efficacy (r+ = 0.26) and intentions (r+ = 0.33) were the strongest predictors in bivariate analyses. The structural equation models included attitudes, injunctive norms, self-efficacy, intentions, and physical activity (k = 22, N = 4,385). The model with the best fit, χ2(2) = 0.11, p = .95, root mean square error of approximation = .00, comparative fit index = 1.00, Tucker-Lewis index = 1.00, indicated that all specified paths were significant. Intentions were the strongest predictor of physical activity (β = 0.27, p < .001), and attitudes and self-efficacy were strong predictors of intentions (both βs = 0.29, ps < .001). Few significant moderators were observed.

CONCLUSION

This review indicates that self-efficacy and intentions are direct predictors of physical activity in cancer survivors. Further, attitudes and norms predict physical activity through intentions. Findings inform intervention development to increase physical activity engagement among cancer survivors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Dogs as Support and Motivation for Physical Activity

Physical activity behavior change theorists are actively shifting the field to better align with the science of motivation and decision making. With this shift has come increasing interest in the role of affective judgments, habit, and identity in long-term physical activity maintenance, as well as the importance of framing physical activity in ways that protect autonomy and support personal values. This special communication makes the case for dog walking as a physical activity modality that fits well with the field's new focus. The authors provide an overview of dog walking research performed to date and discuss unanswered research questions. Given the large percentage of U.S. households that own a dog and the mainstream animal welfare movement to rehome adoptable shelter pets, there are innumerable opportunities to leverage the human-dog bond to increase physical activity levels.Dog walking interventions may be a highly practical approach to population-level physical activity promotion.

Social identification-building interventions to improve health: a systematic review and meta-analysis

There is growing evidence that social identity processes play an important role in a range of health outcomes. However, we know little about the nature and effectiveness of interventions that build social identification with the aim of promoting health. In the present research, we systematically review and meta-analyze interventions that build social identification to enhance health and wellbeing. A total of 27 intervention studies were identified (N = 2,230). Using a three-level meta-regression, results indicate that social identification-building interventions had a moderate-to-strong impact on health (Hedges g = 0.66; 95%CIs[0.34, 0.97]). Analyses revealed significant variation in intervention effectiveness as a function of its type: group-relevant decision making (g = 1.26), therapy programmes (g = 1.02), shared activities (g = 0.40), and reminiscence (g = -0.05). By contrast, there was much less variation across health outcomes: quality of life (g = 0.80), physical health (g = 0.76), self-esteem (g = 0.69), well-being (g = 0.66), (reduced) anxiety (g = 0.61), (reduced) depression (g = 0.58), cognitive health (g = 0.55), and (reduced) stress (g = 0.49). Finally, speaking to the mechanism of the interventions, interventions tended to be more effective to the extent that they succeeded in building participants' social identification with the intervention group. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of social identification-building interventions to foster health and outline an agenda for future research and practical application.

The influence of identity on the prevalence and persistence of disordered eating and weight control behaviors in Mexican American college women

Disordered eating behaviors are prevalent in Mexican-American college-enrolled women and contribute to compromised physical and psychological health. Although disordered eating behaviors are multi-determined, few studies have examined individual difference factors that contribute to disordered eating behaviors in Mexican women beyond acculturation. Evidence suggests that individual differences in the constellation of identities may be an important factor influencing the disordered eating behaviors. We hypothesized that individual differences in the collection of identities (self-schemas) increases susceptibility to defining oneself as fat (fat self-schema) and contribute to disordered eating behaviors over time in Mexican American college women. A 12-month longitudinal design was used to measure the level of disordered eating behaviors at 5 points over 12 months in 477 Mexican American women. Identity properties (i.e., positive self-schemas, negative self-schemas, fat self-schema) were measured at baseline. Controlling for relevant covariates, latent growth curve models showed that Mexican American women with few positive and many negative self-schemas were more likely to define themselves as fat, which in turn, predicted purging and fasting/restricting behaviors across the year. However, identity properties were not predictive of binge eating and excessive exercise episodes. Interventions focused on development of positive self-schemas that reflect areas of interest and competence and the revision of negative self-schemas may protect against purging and fasting/restricting in Mexican American college-enrolled women.

Profiles of physical activity biographies in relation to life and aging satisfaction in older adults: longitudinal findings

BACKGROUND

While there is substantial evidence on the relationship between life satisfaction and present physical activity (PA), less is known about which specific PA biographies are associated with a high quality of life and aging satisfaction. Our objective was to identify classes of PA biographies that may be associated with life and aging satisfaction.

METHODS

In this longitudinal study, PA biographies were assessed retrospectively as a baseline, followed by assessments of life and aging satisfaction at six and twelve months in 418 adults aged 60-95. Subgroups with different PA biographies were identified using latent class analysis.

RESULTS

Four distinct PA biographies emerged: increasingly active (35%; n = 147); consistently active (25%; n = 103); consistently inactive (18%; n = 75); and decreasingly active (22%; n = 94). Being consistently active was related to life satisfaction (β = .17) and consistent inactivity was associated with aging dissatisfaction (β = -.20) when accounting for current PA levels.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to current PA, our findings emphasize the value of PA biographies for life and aging satisfaction, which could inform lifespan theories of PA and health promotion.

I think therefore I Am? Examining the relationship between exercise identity and exercise behavior during behavioral weight loss treatment

OBJECTIVES

Identification as an exerciser may promote physical activity. This study examined exercise identity (EI) and its relationship with demographic characteristics and exercise among adults participating in behavioral weight loss treatment, which is a key target population for increasing exercise.

DESIGN

Longitudinal.

METHOD

Participants (N = 320) completed a measure of EI and exercise was assessed with accelerometers at baseline and 6 months.

RESULTS

Baseline EI and exercise were positively related and EI and exercise increased over time. However, change in EI was not meaningfully related to change in exercise, baseline EI did not predict change in exercise, and 6-month EI was not related to 6-month exercise. Participants identifying as non-White reported greater EI but lower exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

Although EI and exercise may increase among weight loss participants, the two may not be meaningfully related during active weight loss treatment. The relationship between EI and exercise may also differ based on race.

Return to Everyday Activity in the Community and Home: a feasibility study for a lifestyle intervention to sit less, move more, and be strong

BACKGROUND

Many interventions designed to meet physical activity guideline recommendations focus on a single component (e.g., walking), to the detriment of other elements of a healthy lifestyle, such as reducing prolonged sitting and doing balance and strength exercises (i.e., bundled multiple behaviors). Adopting these multiple health behaviors within daily life routines may facilitate uptake and support longer-term behavior change. We tested feasibility for a three-part lifestyle intervention to support older women to sit less, move more, and complete balance and strength exercises.

METHODS

We used a convergent parallel mixed-methods, single-arm study design to test feasibility for a 6-week lifestyle intervention: Return to Everyday Activities in the Community and Home (REACH). We collected information at baseline, 3 and 6 weeks (final), and 6 months (follow-up) using questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and performance-based measures. We describe three key elements: (1) implementation factors such as recruitment, retention, program delivery, and adherence; (2) participants' acceptability and experience with the program; and (3) health outcomes, including participants' global mobility, activity, and perceptions of their physical activity identity, and habit strength for (i) physical activity, (ii) breaking up sitting time, and (iii) balance and strength exercises.

RESULTS

We were able to recruit enough participants in the allotted time to conduct one cycle of the REACH group-based program. There were 10 community-dwelling women, median (p25, p75) age 61 (57.5, 71) years, who completed the study. The program was feasible to deliver, with high attendance (mean 5/6 sessions) and positive overall ratings (8/10). Participants rated session content and length high, and educational materials as highly acceptable and understandable. Although participants were active walkers at baseline, few were breaking up prolonged sitting or participating in any balance and strength exercises. At final and follow-up assessments, participants reported developing habits for all three health behaviors, without diminishing physical activity.

CONCLUSION

These results show acceptability of the program and its materials, and feasibility for bundling multiple health behaviors within the REACH program. It also provides confirmation to advance to testing feasibility of this three-part lifestyle intervention with older, less active, adults.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier, NCT02786394; May 18, 2016.

A feasibility randomized trial of an identity-based physical activity intervention among university students

INTRODUCTION

 Exercise identity has considerable evidence as a correlate of physical activity (PA), but almost no research has focused on intervention. Theory suggests identity may be formed through indirect means of motivated behaviour change over time or through direct targeting of identity related antecedents. Using a parallel, single blind design, the purpose of this study was to explore the feasibility (recruitment, retention, and satisfaction) of these two types of interventions (indirect, direct) to increase exercise identity and subsequent PA.

METHODS

 Participants between the ages of 18-25 who were not meeting PA guidelines were recruited from the University of Victoria, and randomized at a 1:1 ratio to an indirect or direct intervention group. The indirect intervention group received information on the benefits of PA and behaviour change techniques such as planning. The direct intervention group received the same information, with the addition of identity-specific information. Intervention materials were delivered bi-weekly for 6 weeks. Feasibility and participant satisfaction at the study end-point were assessed using mixed methods, and both PA change and exercise identity change were assessed via self-report.

RESULTS

 Twenty participants were randomized to the direct or indirect intervention group (10 each), with 18 participants completing full study protocol. The recruitment rate was 26% and retention was 90%. Mean scores from the satisfaction survey (five-point scale) were high for both groups (indirect M = 2.69, SD = 0.62; direct M = 2.83, SD = 0.40). Both intervention groups increased their PA (η2  = 0.25), and exercise identity levels (η2  = 0.43) across six weeks.

DISCUSSION

 High feasibility ratings, both through retention, and survey and interview data show that the study could be extended to a full-scale RCT. Modifications to recruitment including oversampling to account for low recruitment rates may be useful. No adverse events were reported.

Transformational Teaching, Self-Presentation Motives, and Identity in Adolescent Female Physical Education

This study examined whether teachers' use of transformational teaching behaviors, as perceived by adolescent girls, in physical education would predict girls' moderate to vigorous physical activity via mediated effects of physical activity self-presentation motives, physical activity identity, and physical education class engagement. Self-report data were acquired from 273 Scottish high school girls in Grades S1-S3 (the equivalent of Grades 7-9 in North America) at 2 time points separated by 1 week. Significant predictive pathways were found from transformational teaching to girls' moderate to vigorous physical activity via mediated effects of acquisitive self-presentation motives and physical activity identity. This preliminary study provides a novel contribution to the research area by showing how previously unrelated psychosocial constructs work together to predict adolescent girls' moderate to vigorous physical activity. Results are discussed in relation to existing literature and future research directions.

Development of a self-guided web-based intervention to promote physical activity using the multi-process action control framework

PURPOSE

Physical activity promotion has mostly focused on theories of intention-formation, with the assumption that positive intentions will lead to behaviour. Though necessary, exercise intentions alone are often not sufficient to improve physical activity behaviour. The Multi-Process Action Control (M-PAC) framework builds on previous intention-based theories by including both determinants of intention formation and its translation into behaviour. The purpose of this study was to describe the process of developing a self-guided web-based intervention to promote physical activity among adults using the M-PAC model.

PROCEDURES

The development process consisted of the following three phases: 1) Intervention planning: determine intervention needs and requirements; 2) Intervention development: use an iterative process to design a web-based physical activity intervention based on the M-PAC framework; 3) Pilot testing: conduct usability and acceptability assessment on the web-based intervention to further enhance user experience.

PRINCIPAL RESULTS

The intervention planning phase suggested that there is a need for web-based physical activity interventions and there is currently no web-based intervention designed using the M-PAC model. In phase two, we adopted an iterative process to develop a 10-week self-guided web-based intervention to help adults (>18 years of age) to meet 150 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity per week. The pilot testing phase yielded valuable feedback on usability, content, and design of the web-based intervention.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

The development of a web-based physical activity intervention using the M-PAC model could further enhance the effectiveness of web-based interventions and have a significant impact on extending the reach of existing physical activity promotion programs. This study has reinforced the importance of an iterative development process that involves a multi-disciplinary team to design a web-based intervention to promote physical activity. The process enabled the team to clarify the needs for an intervention for our target users, and provided valuable feedback on the design and content of the web-based intervention. Future studies are now needed to evaluate the effectiveness of our web-based intervention.

Experimental manipulation of affective judgments about physical activity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of adults

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the current effectiveness of physical activity (PA) interventions to change affective judgements (AJ) and subsequent behaviour and explore potential moderators. Eligible studies were published in a peer-reviewed English journal and included an experimental design in the PA domain with a measure of AJ as the dependent variable, among adults (>17 years). Literature searches concluded in July 2017 using 11 common databases, with additional hand searching conducted in February 2018. The search yielded 32 independent studies. Random-effects meta-analysis showed positive changes in AJ favouring intervention over control groups, g = 0.43 (95% CI = 0.26-0.60). These changes predicted (β = 0.64) positive changes in PA, g = 0.38 (95% CI = 0.16-0.60), among a sub-sample (k = 14) of studies that also provided behavioural data. Moderator analyses showed the effects were inflated by potential publication bias, participant gender, baseline PA and focus of the intervention. AJ may show change from intervention but larger sample studies are required to obtain a more reliable effect size estimate. Further, few studies have employed behaviour change techniques that would align with the theoretical reasons for changes in AJ, so our evidence for practical intervention content is limited.

Harnessing centred identity transformation to reduce executive function burden for maintenance of health behaviour change: the Maintain IT model

The inability to produce sustainable lifestyle modifications (e.g., physical activity, healthy diet) remains a major barrier to reducing morbidity and mortality from prevalent, preventable conditions. The objective of this paper is to present a model that builds on and extends foundational theory and research to suggest novel approaches that may help to produce lasting behaviour change. The model aims to integrate factors not typically examined together in order to elucidate potential processes underlying a shift from behaviour initiation to long-term maintenance. The central premise of the Maintain IT model builds on approaches demonstrating that in-tact executive function (EF) is critical for health behaviour initiation, for more complex behaviours beyond initiation, and in unsupportive environments and circumstances, but successful recruitment of EF is effortful and prone to error. Enduring changes are more likely if the underlying cognitive processes can become less effortful (non-conscious, automatic). The Maintain IT model posits that a centred identity transformation is one path leading to less effortful processing and facilitating successful recruitment of EF when necessary over the long term, increasing the sustainability of health behaviour change. A conceptual overview of the literature supporting the utility of this integrative model, future directions, and anticipated challenges are presented.

Relationships between Physical Activity Levels, Self-Identity, Body Dissatisfaction and Motivation among Spanish High School Students

The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between gender and the educational grade on the one hand, and physical activity levels, motivation, self-identity, body dissatisfaction, the intention to be physically active and daily sitting time on the other, in a sample of Spanish high school adolescents. The sample consisted of 2087 Spanish students from the 3rd (n = 1141) and 4th grade (n = 946), both male (n = 1046) and female (n = 1041), ranging in age from 15 to 17 years old (M = 15.42; SD = .86). Students completed questionnaires to assess their levels of physical activity, self-identity, motivation, intention to be physically active and daily sitting time. The students' perceptions of their body height and mass were also tested. With the exception of walking MET values, the results showed gender differences in the variables tested. Male participants showed higher intrinsic motivation and lower amotivation than female participants. Furthermore, male students revealed higher levels of physical activity than female students. Finally, the research concluded with the importance of promoting intrinsic reasons for physical activity in order to encourage positive consequences in high school students.

Longitudinal associations between exercise identity and exercise motivation: A multilevel growth curve model approach

Past work linking exercise identity and exercise motivation has been cross-sectional. This is the first study to model the relations between different types of exercise identity and exercise motivation longitudinally. Understanding the dynamic associations between these sets of variables has implications for theory development and applied research. This was a longitudinal survey study. Participants were 180 exercisers (79 men, 101 women) from Greece, who were recruited from fitness centers and were asked to complete questionnaires assessing exercise identity (exercise beliefs and role-identity) and exercise motivation (intrinsic, identified, introjected, external motivation, and amotivation) three times within a 6 month period. Multilevel growth curve modeling examined the role of motivational regulations as within- and between-level predictors of exercise identity, and a model in which exercise identity predicted exercise motivation at the within- and between-person levels. Results showed that within-person changes in intrinsic motivation, introjected, and identified regulations were positively and reciprocally related to within-person changes in exercise beliefs; intrinsic motivation was also a positive predictor of within-person changes in role-identity but not vice versa. Between-person differences in the means of predictor variables were predictive of initial levels and average rates of change in the outcome variables. The findings show support to the proposition that a strong exercise identity (particularly exercise beliefs) can foster motivation for behaviors that reinforce this identity. We also demonstrate that such relations can be reciprocal overtime and can depend on the type of motivation in question as well as between-person differences in absolute levels of these variables.

Do other goals influence physical activity? A systematic review examining the relationship between other goals and physical activity behavior

Promoting regular physical activity (PA) is essential to population health, yet intervention success has been modest. Most approaches have focused heavily on PA motivation but give limited attention to other facilitating and conflicting goals in daily life. The purpose of this review was to unite the literature examining other life goals and appraise their relationship with PA. Ten electronic databases were searched from February to December 2015 through EBSCO with the keywords: goal, facilitation, conflict, interference, intergoal, time displacement, behavioral resolve, cross-behavior, PA and exercise. Combined with manual bibliography and citation searches, 292 potentially relevant abstracts were screened, 40 of which full-text articles were retrieved. A total of 20 articles with 22 independent data-sets met the inclusion criteria and were included in the present review. Despite relatively heterogeneous measurement and a large proportion of cross sectional designs with student samples, the results indicated that PA is related to other life goals both in terms of facilitation (positive association) and conflict (negative association). Both facilitation and conflict goals had more consistent significant associations with PA when they were measured in terms of behavioral (e.g., study behavior, TV viewing) rather than higher-level objectives (e.g., getting healthy, being social). These goals explained additional variance in PA beyond PA intentions, plans, and perceived behavioral control and helped translate positive intentions into behavior. The results suggest that PA interventions should consider PA motivation with the integration of other facilitating and conflicting goals in one's daily life; however, better measurement of goals, with more diverse samples in experimental designs are needed.

Understanding the Reasons behind Anticipated Regret for Missing Regular Physical Activity

Anticipated affective reactions to missing physical activity (PA), often labeled anticipated regret, has reliable evidence as a predictor of PA intention and behavior independent of other standard social cognitive constructs. Despite this evidence, the sources of regret are understudied and may come from many different reasons. The purpose of this study was to theme the reasons for why people responded to anticipated regret over missing regular PA for 2 weeks. Participants were a random sample of 120 university students who were primed on the public health definition of PA, completed measures of regret, and were asked to list their reasons for regret. Ninety-five percent of participants expressed that they would regret not being active and gave a total of 357 reasons. The dominant theme (n = 247; 69%) was a missed opportunity to obtain the benefits of PA, followed by shame/guilt for not being able to follow-through with one's goals or self-categorized role (n = 99; 28%) with a final theme of perceived pressure from others (n = 11; 3%). From a practical perspective, the diversity of these reasons suggest that more clarity on the source of regret should be present in assessment, while building from both attitude and identity theories may help understand how regret motivates PA in future intervention.