Delivery of Morpholino Antisense Oligonucleotides to a Developing Ovine Conceptus via Luminal Injection into a Ligated Uterine Horn

In vivo delivery of morpholino antisense oligonucleotides (MAO) directly into the uterine lumen of a peri-implantation period pregnant sheep is an effective technique for evaluation of gene products for conceptus development. The highly phagocytic conceptus is undergoing rapid morphological change, thereby the available MAO are readily consumed and delivered to developing cells. Here, we describe the method for preparation and surgical delivery of MAO-Endo-Porter complex to developing ovine conceptus on day 8 postmating. Also outlined are methods for posttreatment sample recovery on day 16 postmating.

Timing of exogenous progesterone administration is critical for embryo development and uterine gene expression in an ovine model of maternal constraint

Progesterone (P4) administration in early pregnancy enhances embryo growth in sheep but is associated with decreased embryo survival. This study examined the effects of exogenous P4 administered during specific time periods between pregnancy Day 0 and Day 6 to determine the critical time point for advancement of embryo growth without pregnancy loss and to examine Day 6 and Day 19 endometrial gene expression. Suffolk (S) embryos were transferred into Cheviot (C) ewes that received exogenous P4 (CP4) on Days 0–3 (CP40–3), Days 0–6 (CP40–6), Days 2–4 (CP42–4) or Days 3–6 (CP43–6). Additionally, S embryos were transferred to C and S ewes that did not receive P4 (CnP4 and SnP4). Day 19 embryos from CP4 ewes were longer (P < 0.05) than those from CnP4 ewes. CP42–4 ewes had embryos of similar size to those of CP40–3 and CP40–6 ewes but had higher pregnancy rates. There was altered expression of genes associated with embryo implantation and histotroph production: diacylglycerol-O-acyltransferase (DGAT2), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTSG2) on Day 6 and endometrial galectin 15 (LGALS15) and mucin glycoprotein 1 (MUC1) on Day 19. This suggests that specific timing of P4 administration is critical to the enhanced embryo growth and survival observed. These findings provide a platform for further investigation aimed at advancing embryo development and survival.

Loci and pathways associated with uterine capacity for pregnancy and fertility in beef cattle

Infertility and subfertility negatively impact the economics and reproductive performance of cattle. Of note, significant pregnancy loss occurs in cattle during the first month of pregnancy, yet little is known about the genetic loci influencing pregnancy success and loss in cattle. To identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) with large effects associated with early pregnancy loss, Angus crossbred heifers were classified based on day 28 pregnancy outcomes to serial embryo transfer. A genome wide association analysis (GWAA) was conducted comparing 30 high fertility heifers with 100% success in establishing pregnancy to 55 subfertile heifers with 25% or less success. A gene set enrichment analysis SNP (GSEA-SNP) was performed to identify gene sets and leading edge genes influencing pregnancy loss. The GWAA identified 22 QTL (p < 1 x 10-5), and GSEA-SNP identified 9 gene sets (normalized enrichment score > 3.0) with 253 leading edge genes. Network analysis identified TNF (tumor necrosis factor), estrogen, and TP53 (tumor protein 53) as the top of 671 upstream regulators (p < 0.001), whereas the SOX2 (SRY [sex determining region Y]-box 2) and OCT4 (octamer-binding transcription factor 4) complex was the top master regulator out of 773 master regulators associated with fertility (p < 0.001). Identification of QTL and genes in pathways that improve early pregnancy success provides critical information for genomic selection to increase fertility in cattle. The identified genes and regulators also provide insight into the complex biological mechanisms underlying pregnancy establishment in cattle.

Effect of exogenous progesterone on embryo size and ewe uterine gene expression in an ovine 'dam size' model of maternal constraint

Progesterone (P4), acting via its receptor, regulates uterine function and histotroph production, which are crucial to embryo growth. This study aimed to examine exogenous P4 effects on embryo size and differential endometrial gene expression at Day 19 of gestation using a 'dam size' sheep model of maternal constraint. Purebred Suffolk (S, genotypically large) embryos were transferred into recipient groups of Cheviot (C, genotypically small) or Suffolk ewes that had, or had not, been pre-treated with P4 from Days 0 to 6 of pregnancy. At Day 19S embryos were collected from four experimental groups: P4 pretreated S ewes (SP4; n=5), untreated S ewes (SnP4; n=15), P4 pretreated C ewes (CP4; n=7) and untreated C ewes (CnP4; n=21). Day-19 embryos from CP4 ewes were larger (P<0.05) than those from CnP4 ewes and similar in size (P>0.05) to embryos from SnP4 and SP4 ewes. Expression of mucin 1 (MUC1) and prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2) was upregulated in uterine horns ipsilateral to the corpus luteum from CP4 ewes. Prostaglandin receptor (PGR), MUC1 and PTGS2 expression was upregulated, whilst cathepsin L (CTSL) and radical S-adenosyl methionine domain-containing 2 (RSAD2) expression was downregulated in the ipsilateral horn of SP4 ewes. This suggests that pretreating ewes with exogenous P4 may alleviate early pregnancy maternal constraint via mechanisms that alter uterine function. However, further research is required to investigate the timing of P4 administration and its impact on conception rates.

Paracrine and endocrine actions of interferon tau (IFNT)

This review focuses on the paracrine and endocrine actions of interferon tau (IFNT) during pregnancy recognition and establishment in ruminants. Pregnancy recognition involves the suppression of the endometrial luteolytic mechanism by the conceptus to maintain progesterone production by the corpus luteum (CL). The paracrine antiluteolytic effects of conceptus-derived IFNT inhibit upregulation of oxytocin receptors in the endometrial epithelia of the uterus, thereby preventing the production of luteolytic prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF2α) pulses. In the endometrium, IFNT induces or upregulates a large number of classical IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) and regulates expression of many other genes in a cell-specific manner that are likely important for conceptus elongation, implantation and establishment of pregnancy. Further, IFNT has endocrine effects on extrauterine cells and tissues. In sheep, IFNT induces luteal resistance to PGF2α, thereby ensuring survival of the CL for maintenance of pregnancy. The ISGs induced in circulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells by IFNT may also be useful as an indicator of pregnancy status in cattle. An increased knowledge of IFNT and ISGs is important to improve the reproductive efficiency in ruminants.

Post-artificial insemination supplementation with calcium salts of soybean oil influences pregnancy establishment factors in beef cows

The objective of this experiment was to compare hormonal, uterine, and conceptus factors associated with pregnancy establishment in beef cows supplemented or not with Ca salts of soybean oil (CSSO) for 21 d beginning after timed AI. One hundred lactating multiparous Nelore cows were allocated to 20 groups of 5 cows/group and timed inseminated on d 0 of the experiment. After AI, groups were randomly assigned to receive (as-fed basis) 100 g of protein-mineral mix + 100 g of ground corn per cow per day, in addition to 1) 100 g/cow daily of CSSO ( = 10) or 2) 100 g/cow daily of kaolin (CON; rumen-inert indigestible substance; = 10). Groups were maintained in 4 pastures (5 groups from the same treatment within each pasture) with ad libitum access to forage. Groups were segregated daily and individually offered treatments from d 0 to 21. Blood samples were collected and transrectal ultrasonography was performed to verify ovulation and corpus luteum (CL) volume immediately before AI (d 0) and on d 7 and 15. After ultrasonography on d 15, 60 cows (30 cows/treatment and 3 cows/group) diagnosed without the presence of a CL on d 0 but with a CL greater than 0.38 cm3 in volume on d 7 and 15 were assigned to conceptus collection via transcervical flushing with PBS followed by endometrial biopsy in the uterine horn ipsilateral to the CL. Additional blood samples were collected for whole-blood RNA extraction (d 20), and pregnancy status was verified by transrectal ultrasonography (d 30) in cows not assigned to conceptus collection. Cows receiving CSSO had greater ( ≤ 0.04) mean plasma linoleic acid concentration, plasma linoleic:linolenic acid ratio, plasma progesterone (P4) concentration, and CL volume during the experiment compared with CON cows. Moreover, CSSO supplementation increased ( ≤ 0.04) length and mRNA expression of and by the conceptus as well as blood mRNA expression of interferon-stimulated genes on d 20 in gestating cows. No treatment differences were detected ( ≥ 0.30) for endometrial mRNA expression of and . In summary, post-AI CSSO supplementation to B. indicus beef cows increased plasma concentration of linoleic acid and enhanced pregnancy establishment factors, which included CL development and plasma P4 concentration, conceptus growth, and mRNA expression of as well as blood mRNA expression of interferon-stimulated genes.

Effects of supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid on reproduction of dairy cows

The objectives were to determine the effects of supplementing docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-rich algae on reproduction of dairy cows. Holstein cows were assigned randomly to either a control (n = 373) or the same diet supplemented daily with 100 g/cow of an algae product containing 10% DHA (algae, n = 366) from 27 to 147 days postpartum. Measurements included yields of milk and milk components, fatty acids (FA) profiles in milk fat and plasma phospholipids, resumption of ovulation by 57 days postpartum, pregnancy per artificial insemination (AI) and expression of interferon-stimulated genes in leukocytes. Feeding algae increased resumption of estrous cyclicity (77.6 vs 65.9%) and pregnancy at first AI (47.6 vs 32.8%) in primiparous cows. Algae increased pregnancy per AI in all AI in both primiparous and multiparous cows (41.6 vs 30.7%), which reduced days to pregnancy by 22 days (102 vs 124 days) compared with control cows. Pregnant cows fed algae had greater expression of RTP4 in blood leukocytes compared with those in pregnant control cows. Feeding algae increased the incorporation of DHA, eicosapentaenoic acid, conjugated linoleic acid isomers cis-9 trans-11, trans-10 cis-12 and total n-3 FA in phospholipids in plasma and milk fat. Yields of milk and true protein increased by 1.1 kg/day and 30 g/day respectively, whereas fat yield decreased 40 g/day in algae compared with that in control. Supplementing DHA-rich algae altered the FA composition of lipid fractions and improved reproduction in dairy cows. The benefits on reproduction might be mediated by enhanced embryo development based on changes in interferon-stimulated gene expression.

Pre-hatching embryo-dependent and -independent programming of endometrial function in cattle

The bovine pre-implantation embryo secretes bioactive molecules from early development stages, but effects on endometrial function are reported to start only after elongation. Here, we interrogated spatially defined regions of the endometrium transcriptome for responses to a day 7 embryo in vivo. We hypothesize that exposure to an embryo changes the abundance of specific transcripts in the cranial region of the pregnant uterine horn. Endometrium was collected from the uterotubal junction (UTJ), anterior (IA), medial (IM) and posterior (IP) regions of the uterine horn ipsilateral to the CL 7 days after estrus from sham-inseminated (Con) or artificially inseminated, confirmed pregnant (Preg) cows. Abundance of 86 transcripts was evaluated by qPCR using a microfluidic platform. Abundance of 12 transcripts was modulated in the Preg endometrium, including classical interferon-stimulated genes (ISG15, MX1, MX2 and OAS1Y), prostaglandin biosynthesis genes (PTGES, HPGD and AKR1C4), water channel (AQP4) and a solute transporter (SLC1A4) and this was in the UTJ and IA mainly. Additionally, for 71 transcripts, abundance varied according to region of the reproductive tract. Regulation included downregulation of genes associated with proliferation (IGF1, IGF2, IGF1R and IGF2R) and extracellular matrix remodeling (MMP14, MMP19 and MMP2) and upregulation of anti-adhesive genes (MUC1) in the cranial regions of uterine horn. Physical proximity to the embryo provides paracrine regulation of endometrial function. Embryo-independent regulation of the endometrial transcriptome may support subsequent stages of embryo development, such as elongation and implantation. We speculate that successful early embryo-dependent and -independent programming fine-tune endometrial functions that are important for maintenance of pregnancy in cattle.

Continuous model of conceptus implantation to the maternal endometrium

As placental morphology as well as trophoblast characteristics exhibit wide diversity across mammalian species, underling molecules were also thought to vary greatly. In the majority of cases, however, regardless of the mode of implantation, physiological and biochemical processes in conceptus implantation to the maternal endometrium including the kinds of gene expression and their products are now considered to share many similarities. In fact, recent progress has identified that in addition to the hormones, cytokines, proteases and cell adhesion molecules classically characterized, molecules related to lymphocyte homing and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) are all required for the progression of conceptus implantation to placentation. In this review, therefore, the newest findings are all incorporated into the molecular and cellular events related to conceptus implantation to the maternal endometrium; primarily from non-invasive bovine placentation and also from invasive human implantation.

Role of progesterone in embryo development in cattle

Progesterone (P4) from the corpus luteum is critical for the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy and plays a major role in regulating endometrial secretions essential for stimulating and mediating changes in conceptus growth and differentiation throughout early pregnancy in ruminants. Numerous studies have demonstrated an association between elevated systemic P4 and acceleration in conceptus elongation. A combination of in vivo and in vitro experiments found that the effects of P4 on conceptus elongation are indirect and mediated through P4-induced effects in the endometrium. Despite effects on elongation, data on the effects of post-insemination supplementation with P4 on pregnancy rates are conflicting. This review highlights the effects of P4 on conceptus development and examines strategies that have been undertaken to manipulate P4 concentrations to increase fertility.

Insights into conceptus elongation and establishment of pregnancy in ruminants

This review integrates established and new information on the factors and pathways regulating conceptus–endometrial interactions, conceptus elongation and establishment of pregnancy in sheep and cattle. Establishment of pregnancy in domestic ruminants begins at the conceptus stage (embryo or fetus and associated extra-embryonic membranes) and includes pregnancy recognition signalling, implantation and the onset of placentation. Survival and growth of the preimplantation blastocyst and elongating conceptus require embryotrophic factors (amino acids, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and other substances) provided by the uterus. The coordinated and interactive actions of ovarian progesterone and conceptus-derived factors (interferon-τ and prostaglandins) regulate expression of elongation- and implantation-related genes in the endometrial epithelia that alter the uterine luminal milieu and affect trophectoderm proliferation, migration, attachment, differentiation and function. A comparison of sheep and cattle finds both conserved and non-conserved embryotrophic factors in the uterus; however, the overall biological pathways governing conceptus elongation and establishment of pregnancy are likely conserved. Given that most pregnancy losses in ruminants occur during the first month of pregnancy, increased knowledge is necessary to understand why and provide a basis for new strategies to improve pregnancy outcome and reproductive efficiency.

Imprinted and DNA methyltransferase gene expression in the endometrium during the pre- and peri-implantation period in cattle

The endometrium plays a key role in providing an optimal environment for attachment of the preimplantation embryo during the early stages of pregnancy. Investigations over the past 2 decades have demonstrated that vital epigenetic processes occur in the embryo during the preimplantation stages of development. However, few studies have investigated the potential role of imprinted genes and their associated modulators, the DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), in the bovine endometrium during the pre- and peri-implantation period. Therefore, in the present study we examined the expression profiles of the DNMT genes (3A, 3A2 and 3B) and a panel of the most comprehensively studied imprinted genes in the endometrium of cyclic and pregnant animals. Intercaruncular (Days 5, 7, 13, 16 and 20) and caruncular (Days 16 and 20) regions were analysed for gene expression changes, with protein analysis also performed for DNMT3A, DNMT3A2 and DNMT3B on Days 16 and 20. An overall effect of day was observed for expression of several of the imprinted genes. Tissue-dependent gene expression was detected for all genes at Day 20. Differences in DNMT protein abundance were mostly observed in the intercaruncular regions of pregnant heifers at Day 16 when DNMT3A, DNMT3A2 and DNMT3B were all lower when compared with cyclic controls. At Day 20, DNMT3A2 expression was lower in the pregnant caruncular samples compared with cyclic animals. This study provides evidence that epigenetic mechanisms in the endometrium may be involved with implantation of the embryo during the early stages of pregnancy in cattle.

Peri-ovulatory endocrine regulation of the prostanoid pathways in the bovine uterus at early dioestrus

We hypothesised that different endocrine profiles associated with pre-ovulatory follicle (POF) size would impact on uterine prostanoid pathways and thereby modulate the histotroph composition. Beef cows (n = 15 per group) were hormonally manipulated to have small (SF-SCL group) or large (LF-LCL group) pre-ovulatory follicles (POF) and corpora lutea (CL). Seven days after induction of ovulation, animals were slaughtered and uterine tissues and flushings were collected for quantification of prostanoids. The POF and CL size and the circulating progesterone concentrations at Day 7 were greater (P < 0.05) in the LF-LCL cows than in the SF-SCL group, as expected. The abundance of 5 out of 19 genes involved in prostanoid regulation was different between groups. Transcript abundance of prostaglandin F2α, E2 and I2 synthases was upregulated (P < 0.05) and phospholipase A2 was downregulated (P < 0.05) in endometrium of the LF-LCL group. No difference (P > 0.1) in prostanoid concentrations in the endometrium or in uterine flushings was detected between groups. However, prostaglandin F2α and E2 concentrations in the uterine flushings were positively correlated with the abundance of transcripts for prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2 (0.779 and 0.865, respectively; P < 0.002). We conclude that endometrial gene expression related to prostanoid synthesis is modulated by the peri-ovulatory endocrine profile associated with POF size, but at early dioestrus differences in transcript abundance were not reflected in changes in prostanoid concentrations in the uterine tissue and fluid.

Preattachment Embryos of Domestic Animals: Insights into Development and Paracrine Secretions

In mammalian species, endometrial receptivity is driven by maternal factors independently of embryo signals. When pregnancy initiates, paracrine secretions of the preattachment embryo are essential both for maternal recognition and endometrium preparation for implantation and for coordinating development of embryonic and extraembryonic tissues of the conceptus. This review mainly focuses on domestic large animal species. We first illustrate the major steps of preattachment embryo development, including elongation in bovine, ovine, porcine, and equine species. We next highlight conceptus secretions that are involved in the communication between extraembryonic and embryonic tissues, as well as between the conceptus and the endometrium. Finally, we introduce experimental data demonstrating the intimate connection between conceptus secretions and endometrial activity and how adverse events perturbing this interplay may affect the progression of implantation that will subsequently impact pregnancy outcome, postnatal health, and expression of production traits in livestock offspring.

Role of lipids on elongation of the preimplantation conceptus in ruminants

Elongation of the preimplantation conceptus is a prerequisite for successful pregnancy in ruminants and depends on histotroph secretion by the endometrium. Lipids are an essential component of the histotroph, and recent studies indicate that lipids have important roles in the elongation phase of conceptus development. The onset of elongation is marked by dynamic changes in the transcriptome of trophectoderm cells, which are associated with lipid metabolism. During elongation, the trophectoderm increases transcript expression of genes related to uptake, metabolism andde novobiosynthesis of fatty acids and prostaglandins. Expression of the genePPARGincreases substantially, and activation of the transcription factor PPARG by binding of lipid ligands appears to be crucial for the coordination of cell biology during elongation. Lipids accumulated in the epithelial cells of the endometrium during diestrus are likely the most important source of fatty acids for utilization by the conceptus and become available in the uterine lumen through exporting of exosomes, microvesicles, carrier proteins and lipoproteins. Targeting of uterine lipid metabolism and PPARG activity during preimplantation conceptus development through nutraceutical diets may be a good strategy to improve pregnancy survival and reproductive efficiency in ruminants.

Novel concepts on the role of prostaglandins on luteal maintenance and maternal recognition and establishment of pregnancy in ruminants

In ruminants, the corpus luteum (CL) of early pregnancy is resistant to luteolysis. Prostaglandin (PG)E2 is considered a luteoprotective mediator. Early studies indicate that during maternal recognition of pregnancy (MRP) in ruminants, a factor(s) from the conceptus or gravid uterus reaches the ovary locally through the utero-ovarian plexus (UOP) and protects the CL from luteolysis. The local nature of the embryonic antiluteolytic or luteoprotective effect precludes any direct effect of a protein transported or acting between the gravid uterus and CL in ruminants. During MRP, interferon tau (IFNT) secreted by the trophoblast of the conceptus inhibits endometrial pulsatile release of PGF2α and increases endometrial PGE2. Our recent studies indicate that (1) luteal PG biosynthesis is selectively directed toward PGF2α at the time of luteolysis and toward PGE2 at the time of establishment of pregnancy (ESP); (2) the ability of the CL of early pregnancy to resist luteolysis is likely due to increased intraluteal biosynthesis and signaling of PGE2; and (3) endometrial PGE2 is transported from the uterus to the CL through the UOP vascular route during ESP in sheep. Intrauterine co-administration of IFNT and prostaglandin E2 synthase 1 (PGES-1) inhibitor reestablishes endometrial PGF2α pulses and regresses the CL. In contrast, intrauterine co-administration of IFNT and PGES-1 inhibitor along with intraovarian administration of PGE2 rescues the CL. Together, the accumulating information provides compelling evidence that PGE2 produced by the CL in response to endometrial PGE2 induced by pregnancy may counteract the luteolytic effect of PGF2α as an additional luteoprotective mechanism during MRP or ESP in ruminants. Targeting PGE2 biosynthesis and signaling selectively in the endometrium or CL may provide luteoprotective therapy to improve reproductive efficiency in ruminants.

Differences in mRNA populations of short and long bovine conceptuses on Day 15 of gestation

The majority of pregnancy loss in cattle occurs between Days 8 and 16 of gestation, coincident with the initiation of conceptus elongation and the onset of maternal recognition of pregnancy. Differences in conceptus length on the same day of gestation may be related to an inherent lack of developmental competency or may simply be a consequence of asynchrony with the maternal environment. The objective of this work was to characterize differential patterns of mRNA expression between short and long bovine conceptuses recovered on Day 15 of gestation. Embryos were produced from super-ovulated Holstein donor cows, and groups of Grade-1 and Grade-3 compact morulas were transferred into recipient heifers at Day 6.5 of their cycle. Conceptuses were recovered at Day 15 of gestation, and measured to assess overall length and area. Total RNA was extracted and analyzed on individual GeneChip Bovine Genome Arrays (Affymetrix, Santa Clara, CA). Gene expression was compared between conceptuses derived from the transfer of Grade-1 versus Grade-3 embryos; no differences were identified in the profiles of Day-15 conceptuses of these different embryo grades. When gene expression was compared between conceptuses classified as either short (mean length of 4.2 ± 0.1 mm [standard error]) or long (24.7 ± 1.9 mm) upon recovery at Day 15 of gestation, a total of 348 genes were differentially expressed. Of these, 221 genes were up-regulated and 127 were down-regulated in long compared to short conceptuses. In summary, differences in gene expression were identified between conceptuses recovered on Day 15 of gestation, based on their length. These data may be used to identify genes and cellular pathways involved in enhanced conceptus elongation that could serve as markers of successful pregnancy. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 83: 424-441, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Prostaglandin F2α promotes angiogenesis and embryo-maternal interactions during implantation

Implantation in humans and other mammals is a critical period during which high embryonic mortality rates occur. Prostaglandins (PGs) are key mediators regulating interactions between the reproductive tract and the conceptus (embryo with extraembryonic membranes). Although the significance of PGF2α as a regulator of corpus luteum regression is well established, the role of its high amounts in the uterine lumen in most mammals, regardless of placentation type, during the implantation period remains unresolved. We hypothesized that PGF2α acting as an embryonic signal mediator contributes to pregnancy establishment. Using a porcine model, we demonstrated that the conceptus and its signal (estradiol-17β) elevated endometrial expression of PGF2α receptor (PTGFR) in vivo and in vitro PTGFR protein was expressed mainly in luminal epithelial (LE) and glandular epithelial cells and blood vessels in the endometrium. PGF2α stimulated the MAPK1/3 pathway in endometrial LE cells that coincided with elevated gene expression and secretion of endometrial vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) protein. PGF2α-PTGFR and adenylyl cyclase signaling were involved in this process. PGF2α-induced VEGFA acting through its receptors stimulated proliferation of endometrial endothelial cells. Moreover, PGF2α elevated gene expression of biglycan, matrix metalloproteinase 9, transforming growth factor β3, and interleukin 1α in the endometrium. In summary, our study indicates that PGF2α participates in pregnancy establishment by promoting angiogenesis and expression of genes involved in tissue remodeling and conceptus-maternal interactions in porcine endometrium during early pregnancy.

Appreciation for Analysis of how Levonorgestrel Works and Reservations with the use of Meloxicam as Emergency Contraception

This paper is a response to Dr. Kathleen Raviele's recent article on her critical analysis of the use of levonorgestrel given to women postsexual assault and her suggestion that the use of Meloxicam may be an ethical alternative.

Extracellular Vesicles Originate from the Conceptus and Uterus During Early Pregnancy in Sheep

Cells release diverse types of membrane-bound vesicles of endosomal and plasma membrane origin, termed exosomes and microvesicles, respectively. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent an important mode of intercellular communication by transferring select RNAs, proteins, and lipids between cells. The present studies tested the hypothesis that the elongating ovine conceptus and uterus produces EVs that mediate conceptus-maternal interactions during early pregnancy. In Study 1, EVs were purified from uterine luminal fluid of Day 14 cyclic sheep. The EVs were fluorescently labeled with PKH67 dye and infused into the uterine lumen of pregnant sheep for 6 days using an osmotic pump. On Day 14, labeled EVs were observed in the conceptus trophectoderm and uterine epithelia, but not in the uterine stroma or myometrium. In Study 2, Day 14 conceptuses were cultured ex vivo for 24 h and found to release EVs into the culture medium. Proteomics analysis of the Day 14 conceptus-derived EVs identified 231 proteins that were enriched for extracellular space and several protein classes, including proteases, protease inhibitors, chaperones and chaperonins. RNA sequencing of Day 14 conceptus-derived EVs detected expression of 512 mRNAs. The top-expressed genes were overrepresented in ribosomal functions and components. Isolated EVs from conceptuses were fluorescently labeled with PKH67 and infused into the uterine lumen of cyclic sheep for 6 days using an osmotic pump. On Day 14, labeled EVs were observed in the uterine epithelia, but not in the uterine stroma or myometrium. Labeled EVs were not observed in the ovary or in other maternal tissues. These studies support the ideas that EVs emanate from both the conceptus trophectoderm and uterine epithelia, and are involved in intercellular communication between those cells during the establishment of pregnancy in sheep.

Expression of estrus modifies the gene expression profile in reproductive tissues on Day 19 of gestation in beef cows

The aim of this study was to test the effect of expression of estrus at artificial insemination (AI) on endometrium, conceptus, and CL gene expression of beef cows. Thirty-six multiparous nonlactating Nelore cows were enrolled on an estradiol- and progesterone (P4)-based timed AI protocol (AI = Day 0) and then slaughtered for the endometrium, CL, and conceptus collection on Day 19. The animals were retrospectively grouped on the basis of cows that (1) showed signs of estrus near AI (n = 19; estrus) and (2) did not show any signs of estrus (n = 17; nonestrus). Body condition score, blood sampling, and ultrasound examination were performed on Days 0, 7, and 18 of the experiment followed by messenger RNA extraction and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis of 58 target genes. Data were checked for normality and analyzed by ANOVA for repeated measures using proc GLM, MIXED, and UNIVARIATE of SAS. Only pregnant cows were included in the analyses (n = 12; nonestrus, n = 11). Estrous expression had no correlation with parameters such as body condition score, preovulatory follicle and CL diameter, P4 concentration in plasma on Days 7 and 18 after AI, and interferon-tau concentration in the uterine flushing (P > 0.15); however, a significant increase was observed in conceptus size from cows that expressed estrus (P = 0.02; 38.3 ± 2.8 vs. 28.2 ± 2.9 mm). The majority of transcripts affected by estrous expression in the endometrium belong to the immune system and adhesion molecule family (MX1, MX2, MYL12A, MMP19, CXCL10, IGLL1, and SLPI; P ≤ 0.05), as well as those related with prostaglandin synthesis (OTR and COX-2; P ≤ 0.05). Genes related to apoptosis, P4 synthesis, and prostaglandin receptor were downregulated (CYP11A, BAX, and FPr; P < 0.05) in the CL tissue of cows that expressed estrus. In addition, four genes were identified as differentially expressed in the 19-day-old conceptus from cows that expressed estrus (ISG15, PLAU, BMP15, and EEF1A1; P < 0.05). There was also a significant effect of Day 7 concentration of P4 mainly affecting the immune system, adhesion molecules, and wnt signaling pathway of the endometrium (IGLL1, MX2, SLPI, TRD, APC, WNT2, GLYCAM1, and MYL12A; P < 0.05). A significant interaction between estrous expression and P4 concentration on Day 7 was more pronounced in immune system genes (MX1, MX2, TRD, SLPI, and IGLL1; P < 0.05). This study reported that estrous expression at the time of AI favorably altered the gene expression profile in reproductive tissues during the preimplantation phase toward a more receptive state to the elongating conceptus. These effects seem to be more evident in the endometrium during the time of dynamic remodeling for embryo implantation.

11β-Prostaglandin F2α, a bioactive metabolite catalyzed by AKR1C3, stimulates prostaglandin F receptor and induces slug expression in breast cancer

Prostaglandins are a group of lipid compounds involved in inflammation and cancer. We focused on PGF2α and its stereoisomer 11β-PGF2α and examined the expression and functions of their cognate receptor (FP receptor) and metabolizing enzymes (AKR1B1 and AKR1C3 respectively) in breast cancer. In immunohistochemical analysis FP receptor status associated with adverse clinical outcome only in the AKR1C3 positive cases. Therefore, we studied FP receptor-mediated functions of 11β-PGF2α using FP receptor expressed MCF-7 cell line (MCF-FP). 11β-PGF2α treatment phosphorylated ERK and CREB and induced Slug expression through FP receptor in MCF-FP, and MCF-FP cells demonstrated decreased chemosensitivity compared to parental controls. Finally, the correlation between FP receptor and Slug was also confirmed immunohistochemically in breast cancer cases. Overall these results indicated that the actions of AKR1C3 can produce FP receptor ligands whose activation results in carcinoma cell survival in breast cancer.

Biological Roles of Hydroxysteroid (11-Beta) Dehydrogenase 1 (HSD11B1), HSD11B2, and Glucocorticoid Receptor (NR3C1) in Sheep Conceptus Elongation

In sheep, the elongating conceptus synthesizes and secretes interferon tau (IFNT) as well as prostaglandins (PGs) and cortisol. The enzymes, hydroxysteroid (11-beta) dehydrogenase 1 (HSD11B1) and HSD11B2 interconvert cortisone and cortisol. In sheep, HSD11B1 is expressed and active in the conceptus trophectoderm as well as in the endometrial luminal epithelia; in contrast, HSD11B2 expression is most abundant in conceptus trophectoderm. Cortisol is a biologically active glucocorticoid and ligand for the glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1 or GR) and mineralocorticoid receptor (NR3C2 or MR). Expression of MR is not detectable in either the ovine endometrium or conceptus during early pregnancy. In tissues that do not express MR, HSD11B2 protects cells from the growth-inhibiting and/or proapoptotic effects of cortisol, particularly during embryonic development. In study one, an in utero loss-of-function analysis of HSD11B1 and HSD11B2 was conducted in the conceptus trophectoderm using morpholino antisense oligonucleotides (MAOs) that inhibit mRNA translation. Elongating, filamentous conceptuses were recovered on Day 14 from ewes infused with control morpholino or HSD11B2 MAO. In contrast, HSD11B1 MAO resulted in severely growth-retarded conceptuses or conceptus fragments with apoptotic trophectoderm. In study two, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/Cas9 genome editing was used to determine the role of GR in conceptus elongation and development. Elongating, filamentous-type conceptuses (12-14 cm in length) were recovered from ewes gestating control embryos (n = 7/7) and gestating GR-edited embryos (n = 6/7). These results support the idea that the effects of HSD11B1-derived cortisol on conceptus elongation are indirectly mediated by the endometrium and are not directly mediated through GR in the trophectoderm.

'Conceptualizing' the Endometrium: Identification of Conceptus-Derived Proteins During Early Pregnancy in Cattle

The aim of this study was to identify conceptus-derived proteins, in addition to IFNT, that may facilitate pregnancy recognition in cattle. Analysis of the protein content of the uterine luminal fluid (ULF) from cyclic heifers on Day 16 by nano liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry identified 334 proteins. Comparison of these data with 299 proteins identified in the ULF of pregnant heifers on Day 16 identified 85 proteins only present in the ULF of pregnant heifers. Analysis of Day 16 conceptus-conditioned culture medium revealed the presence of 1005 proteins of which 30 proteins were unique to ULF from Day 16 pregnant heifers. Of these 30 proteins, 12 had mRNA expression values at least 2-fold higher in abundance (P < 0.05) in the conceptus compared to the endometrium (ARPC5L, CAPG, CKMT1, CSTB, HSPA8, HSPE1, LGALS3, MSN, NUTF2, P4HB, PRKAR2A, TKT) as determined by RNA sequencing. In addition, genes that have a significant biological interaction with the proteins (ACO2, CKMT1, CSTB, EEF2, GDI1, GLB1, GPLD1, HNRNPA1, HNRNPA2B1, HNRNPF, HSPA8, HSPE1, IDH2, KRT75, LGALS3, MSN, NUTF2, P4HB, PRKAR2A, PSMA4, PSMB5, PSMC4, SERPINA3, TKT) were differentially expressed in the endometrium of pregnant compared to cyclic heifers during the pregnancy recognition period (Days 16-18). These results indicate that 30 proteins unique to ULF from pregnant heifers and produced by short-term in vitro cultured Day 16 conceptuses could potentially be involved in facilitating the interactions between the conceptus and the endometrium during the pregnancy recognition period.

Involvement of TLR7 and TLR8 in conceptus development and establishment of pregnancy in sheep

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) belong to the innate immune system and regulate inflammatory events that affect mammalian reproduction. In Study 1, we demonstrated that abundance of ovine TLR1-TLR9 mRNAs in the uterus differs due to reproductive status (TLR2, TLR3, TLR7, and TLR8) and the day of the estrous cycle and pregnancy (TLR1-TLR3, TLR5-TLR7, and TLR9). Expression of TLR7 and TLR8 proteins was localized primarily to uterine epithelia and stroma and regulated in a temporal manner. In Study 2, we determined that ovine conceptuses express TLR7 and TLR8 on all days studied and that expression of the envelope protein of ovine endogenous retrovirus (enJSRV-Env) declined in conceptus trophectoderm from Day 13 to Day 16 of pregnancy. In Study 3, loss-of-function experiments were conducted in vivo using morpholino antisense oligonucleotides (MAOs) injected into the uterine lumen to block synthesis of TLR7 and TLR8 proteins, individually and jointly. Conceptuses were recovered on Day 16 to assess their morphology. MAO-treated conceptuses were developmentally retarded, produced less interferon tau (IFNT), and had fewer binucleate cells (BNCs) compared with MAO-Controls. Moreover, expression of enJSRV-Env mRNA in MAO-TLR7 conceptuses was greater than that for MAO-Control and MAO-TLR8 conceptuses, but similar to MAO-TLR7/TLR8 conceptuses. Results of this study indicated differences in TLR1-TLR9 expression due to reproductive status and the day of the estrous cycle and pregnancy. TLR7 and TLR8 also influence development, enJSRV-Env abundance, secretion of IFNT, and formation of BNCs by conceptuses. These findings corroborate our hypothesis that TLR7 and TLR8 mediate pathways whereby enJSRV-Env regulates key peri-implantation events in conceptus development and differentiated functions of trophectoderm cells.

Peroxisome proliferator activator receptor gamma (PPARG) regulates conceptus elongation in sheep

The ovine blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida by Day 8 and develops into an ovoid or tubular conceptus (embryo and associated extraembryonic membranes) that grows and elongates into a filamentous form between Days 12 and 16. The trophectoderm of the elongating conceptus synthesizes and secretes interferon tau (IFNT) as well as prostaglandins (PGs) via prostaglandin synthase two (PTGS2). Intrauterine infusion of a PTGS2 inhibitor prevents conceptus elongation in sheep. Although many PGs are secreted, PGI2 and PGJ2 can activate nuclear peroxisome proliferator activator receptors (PPARs) that heterodimerize with retinoic X receptors (RXRs) to regulate gene expression and cellular function. Expression of PPARD, PPARG, RXRA, RXRB, and RXRG is detected in the elongating ovine conceptus, and nuclear PPARD and PPARG are present in the trophectoderm. Consequently, PPARD and PPARG are hypothesized to have essential roles in conceptus elongation in ruminants. In utero loss-of-function studies of PPARD and PPARG in the ovine conceptus trophectoderm were conducted using morpholino antisense oligonucleotides (MAOs) that inhibit mRNA translation. Elongating, filamentous-type conceptuses were recovered from ewes infused with a control morpholino or PPARD MAO. In contrast, PPARG MAO resulted in severely growth-retarded conceptuses or conceptus fragments with apoptotic trophectoderm. In order to identify PPARG-regulated genes, PPARG chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing and RNA sequencing were conducted using Day 14 ovine conceptuses. These analyses revealed candidate PPARG-regulated genes involved in biological pathways, including lipid and glucose uptake, transport, and metabolism. Collectively, results support the hypothesis that PTGS2-derived PGs and PPARG are essential regulators of conceptus elongation, with specific roles in trophectoderm survival and proliferation.

Conceptus elongation in ruminants: roles of progesterone, prostaglandin, interferon tau and cortisol

The majority of pregnancy loss in ruminants occurs during the first three weeks after conception, particularly during the period of conceptus elongation that occurs prior to pregnancy recognition and implantation. This review integrates established and new information on the biological role of ovarian progesterone (P4), prostaglandins (PGs), interferon tau (IFNT) and cortisol in endometrial function and conceptus elongation. Progesterone is secreted by the ovarian corpus luteum (CL) and is the unequivocal hormone of pregnancy. Prostaglandins (PGs) and cortisol are produced by both the epithelial cells of the endometrium and the trophectoderm of the elongating conceptus. In contrast, IFNT is produced solely by the conceptus trophectoderm and is the maternal recognition of pregnancy signal that inhibits production of luteolytic pulses of PGF_2α by the endometrium to maintain the CL and thus production of P4. Available results in sheep support the idea that the individual, interactive, and coordinated actions of P4, PGs, IFNT and cortisol regulate conceptus elongation and implantation by controlling expression of genes in the endometrium and/or trophectoderm. An increased knowledge of conceptus-endometrial interactions during early pregnancy in ruminants is necessary to understand and elucidate the causes of infertility and recurrent early pregnancy loss and provide new strategies to improve fertility and thus reproductive efficiency.

Cytokines from the pig conceptus: roles in conceptus development in pigs

Establishment of pregnancy in pigs involves maintaining progesterone secretion from the corpora lutea in addition to regulating a sensitive interplay between the maternal immune system and attachment of the rapidly expanding trophoblast for nutrient absorption. The peri-implantation period of rapid trophoblastic elongation followed by attachment to the maternal uterine endometrium is critical for establishing a sufficient placental-uterine interface for subsequent nutrient transport for fetal survival to term, but is also marked by the required conceptus release of factors involved with stimulating uterine secretion of histotroph and modulation of the maternal immune system. Many endometrial genes activated by the conceptus secretory factors stimulate a tightly controlled proinflammatory response within the uterus. A number of the cytokines released by the elongating conceptuses stimulate inducible transcription factors such as nuclear factor kappa B (NFKB) potentially regulating the maternal uterine proinflammatory and immune response. This review will establish the current knowledge for the role of conceptus cytokine production and release in early development and establishment of pregnancy in the pig.

Uterine responses to the preattachment embryo in domestic ungulates: recognition of pregnancy and preparation for implantation

The endometrium is a tissue newly evolved with the development of mammalian species. Its main function is the support of embryonic growth and development and the nutrition of the fetus. The species-specific differences in establishment and maintenance of pregnancy make the study of this tissue in various mammalian organisms particularly interesting. With the application of omics technologies to various mammalian species, many systematic studies of endometrial gene expression changes during the phase of establishment of pregnancy have been performed to obtain a global view of regulatory events associated with this biological process. This review summarizes the results of trancriptome studies of bovine, porcine, and equine endometrium. Furthermore, the results are compared between these species and to humans. Because an increasing number of studies suggest an important role of small regulatory RNAs (i.e., microRNAs), recent findings related to the regulation of endometrial functions and the development of the conceptus are presented.

SOCS genes expression during physiological and perturbed implantation in bovine endometrium

In mammals, suppressor of cytokine signalling (CISH, SOCS1 to SOCS7) factors control signalling pathways involved in the regulation of numerous physiological processes including pregnancy. In order to gain new insights into the biological functions of SOCS in the endometrium, a comprehensive analysis of SOCS gene expression was carried out in bovine caruncular (CAR) and intercaruncular (ICAR) tissues collected i) during the oestrous cycle, ii) at the time of maternal recognition of pregnancy and at implantation in inseminated females, iii) following uterine interferon-tau (IFNT) infusion at day 14 post-oestrus, iv) following a period of controlled intravaginal progesterone release and v) following transfer of embryos by somatic-cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). The regulatory effects of IFNT on in vitro cultured epithelial and stromal cells were also examined. Altogether, our data showed that CISH, SOCS4, SOCS5 and SOCS7 mRNA levels were poorly affected during luteolysis and pregnancy. In contrast, SOCS1, SOCS2, SOCS3 and SOCS6 mRNA levels were strongly up-regulated at implantation (day 20 of pregnancy). Experimental in vitro and in vivo models demonstrated that only CISH, SOCS1, SOCS2 and SOCS3 were IFNT-induced genes. Immunohistochemistry showed an intense SOCS3 and SOCS6 staining in the nucleus of luminal and glandular epithelium and of stromal cells of pregnant endometrium. Finally, SOCS3 expression was significantly increased in SCNT pregnancies in keeping with the altered immune function previously reported in this model of compromised implantation. Collectively, our data suggest that spatio-temporal changes in endometrial SOCS gene expression reflect the acquisition of receptivity, maternal recognition of pregnancy and implantation.

Roles of conceptus secretory proteins in establishment and maintenance of pregnancy in ruminants

Reproduction in ruminant species is a highly complex biological process requiring a dialogue between the developing conceptus (embryo-fetus and associated placental membranes) and maternal uterus which must be established during the peri-implantation period for pregnancy recognition signaling and regulation of gene expression by uterine epithelial and stromal cells. The uterus provide a microenvironment in which molecules secreted by uterine epithelia and transported into the uterine lumen represent histotroph, also known as the secretome, that are required for growth and development of the conceptus and receptivity of the uterus to implantation by the elongating conceptus. Pregnancy recognition signaling as related to sustaining the functional lifespan of the corpora lutea, is required to sustain the functional life-span of corpora lutea for production of progesterone which is essential for uterine functions supportive of implantation and placentation required for successful outcomes of pregnancy. It is within the peri-implantation period that most embryonic deaths occur in ruminants due to deficiencies attributed to uterine functions or failure of the conceptus to develop appropriately, signal pregnancy recognition and/or undergo implantation and placentation. The endocrine status of the pregnant ruminant and her nutritional status are critical for successful establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. The challenge is to understand the complexity of key mechanisms that are characteristic of successful reproduction in humans and animals and to use that knowledge to enhance fertility and reproductive health of ruminant species in livestock enterprises.

Evaluation of the reproductive toxicity of naproxen sodium and meloxicam in male rats

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that are cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme inhibitors have generally been used in short-term pain management and also to treat inflammation chronically. It is known that COX enzyme and prostaglandins play important roles in the regulation of reproductive functions in females. However, there are relatively few studies for the male reproductive system, and the results of these studies are contradictory. In this study, sperm count and motility, COX-1, COX-2, prostaglandin E1 (PGE1), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) levels in testis tissue, plasma follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and testosterone levels, and histopathological examination of testis tissue were evaluated after naproxen sodium and meloxicam administration in male rats. Also, testis superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione (GSH) levels were measured to investigate the oxidation status. According to our results, sperm count and motility were significantly decreased in treatment groups. Plasma hormone levels did not show any statistical differences between the groups. COX-1, PGE2, and PGF2α levels were significantly decreased, while the decreases in COX-2 and PGE1 levels did not show any significance statistically. Testis SOD, catalase, GPx, and GSH levels were decreased significantly. According to the results of histopathological examination, damage in seminiferous tubules, where spermatogenesis developed, was observed. In conclusion, naproxen sodium and meloxicam decreased the sperm count and motility and also induced the damage of seminiferous tubules as a direct effect without affecting plasma hormone levels in our study. The mechanism of the reproductive toxicity induced by these agents may be based on the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis and the induction of oxidative stress can be emphasized as a secondary factor.

Amino acids in the uterine luminal fluid reflects the temporal changes in transporter expression in the endometrium and conceptus during early pregnancy in cattle

In cattle, conceptus-maternal interactions are critical for the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. A major component of this early interaction involves the transport of nutrients and secretion of key molecules by uterine epithelial cells to help support conceptus development during the peri-implantation period of pregnancy. Objectives were to: 1) analyze temporal changes in the amino acid (AA) content of uterine luminal fluid (ULF) during the bovine estrous cycle; 2) understand conceptus-induced alterations in AA content; 3) determine expression of AA transporters in the endometrium and conceptus; and 4) determine how these transporters are modulated by (Progesterone) P4. Concentrations of aspartic acid, arginine, glutamine, histidine, lysine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine and tyrosine decreased on Day 16 of the estrous cycle but increased on Day 19 in pregnant heifers (P<0.05). Glutamic acid only increased in pregnant heifers on Day 19 (P<0.001). Asparagine concentrations were greater in ULF of cyclic compared to pregnant heifers on Day 7 (P<0.05) while valine concentrations were higher in pregnant heifers on Day 16 (P<0.05). Temporal changes in expression of the cationic AA transporters SLC7A1 SLC7A4 and SLC7A6 occurred in the endometrium during the estrous cycle/early pregnancy coordinate with changes in conceptus expression of SLC7A4, SLC7A2 and SLC7A1 (P<0.05). Only one acidic AA transporter (SLC1A5) increased in the endometrium while conceptus expression of SLC1A4 increased (P<0.05). The neutral AA transporters SLC38A2 and SLC7A5 increased in the endometrium in a temporal manner while conceptus expression of SLC38A7, SLC43A2, SLC38A11 and SLC7A8 also increased (P<0.05). P4 modified the expression of SLC1A1, -1A4, -1A5, -38A2, -38A4, -38A7, -43A2, -6A14, -7A1, -7A5 and -7A7 in the endometrium. Results demonstrate that temporal changes in AA in the ULF reflect changes in transporter expression in the endometrium and conceptus during early pregnancy in cattle, some of which are modified by P4.

Arginine decarboxylase and agmatinase: an alternative pathway for de novo biosynthesis of polyamines for development of mammalian conceptuses

Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC1) is considered the rate-controlling enzyme for the classical de novo biosynthesis of polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine) in mammals. However, metabolism of arginine to agmatine via arginine decarboxylase (ADC) and conversion of agmatine to polyamines via agmatinase (AGMAT) is an alternative pathway long recognized in lower organisms, but only recently suggested for neurons and liver cells of mammals. We now provide evidence for a functional ADC/AGMAT pathway for the synthesis of polyamines in mammalian reproductive tissue for embryonic survival and development. We first investigated cellular functions of polyamines by in vivo knockdown of translation of mRNA for ODC1 in ovine conceptus trophectoderm using morpholino antisense oligonucleotides (MAOs) and found that one-half of the conceptuses were morphologically and functionally either normal or abnormal. Furthermore, we found that increases in ADC/AGMAT mRNA levels and in the translation of AGMAT mRNA among conceptuses in MAO-ODC1 knockdown compensated for the loss of ODC1, supporting polyamine synthesis from arginine and accounting for the normal and abnormal phenotypes of conceptuses. We conclude that the majority of polyamine synthesis is by the conventional ODC1-dependent pathway (arginine-ornithine-putrescine) and that deficiencies in ODC1 result in increased activity of the rescue ADC/AGMAT-dependent pathway (arginine-agmatine-putrescine) for production of polyamines. The presence of an alternative ADC/AGMAT pathway for converting arginine into putrescine is functionally important for supporting survival and development of mammalian conceptuses.

Proteomic analysis of uterine fluid during the pre-implantation period of pregnancy in cattle

The aims of this study were (i) to characterize the global changes in the composition of the uterine luminal fluid (ULF) from pregnant heifers during pregnancy recognition (day 16) using nano-LC MS/MS; (ii) to describe quantitative changes in selected proteins in the ULF from days 10, 13, 16 and 19 by Isobaric tags for Relative and Absolute Quantification (iTRAQ) analysis; and (iii) to determine whether these proteins are of endometrial or conceptus origin, by examining the expression profiles of the associated transcripts by RNA sequencing. On day 16, 1652 peptides were identified in the ULF by nano-LC MS/MS. Of the most abundant proteins present, iTRAQ analysis revealed that RPB4, TIMP2 and GC had the same expression pattern as IFNT, while the abundance of IDH1, CST6 and GDI2 decreased on either day 16 or 19. ALDOA, CO3, GSN, HSP90A1, SERPINA31 and VCN proteins decreased on day 13 compared with day 10 but subsequently increased on day 16 (P<0.05). Purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) and HSPA8 decreased on day 13, increased on day 16 and decreased and increased on day 19 (P<0.05). The abundance of CATD, CO3, CST6, GDA, GELS, IDHC, PNPH and TIMP2 mRNAs was greater (P<0.001) in the endometrium than in the conceptus. By contrast, the abundance of ACTB, ALDOA, ALDR, CAP1, CATB, CATG, GD1B, HSP7C, HSP90A, RET4 and TERA was greater (P<0.05) in the conceptus than in the endometrium. In conclusion, significant changes in the protein content of the ULF occur during the pre-implantation period of pregnancy reflecting the morphological changes that occur in the conceptus.

Comprehensive analysis of prostaglandin metabolic enzyme expression during pregnancy and the characterization of AKR1B1 as a prostaglandin F synthase at the maternal-conceptus interface in pigs

Prostaglandins (PGs) are important lipid mediators regulating various reproductive processes in many species. In pigs, the expression pattern of PGE2 and PGF2α metabolic enzymes and the regulatory mechanism controlling PGE2 and PGF2α levels in the uterus during pregnancy are not completely understood. This study determined endometrial expression of the genes (PLA2G4A, PTGS1, PTGS2, PTGES, PTGES2, PTGES3, AKR1B1, CBR1, and HPGD) involved in PGE2 and PGF2α metabolism during the estrous cycle and pregnancy and measured levels of PGE2 and PGF2α in uterine endometrial tissues and uterine flushings at the time of conceptus implantation in pigs. Except PTGES3, expression of the genes studied changed in a pregnancy-stage-specific manner, and localization of PTGES, AKR1B1, CBR1, and HPGD mRNAs were cell-type specific in the uterine endometrium. Levels of both PGE2 and PGF2α in uterine endometrial tissues and uterine lumen were higher on Day 12 of pregnancy than those of the estrous cycle and affected by different morphology of spherical and filamentous conceptuses. Furthermore, we determined that endometrial expression of AKR1B1, known to encode a PGF2α synthase in other species, was increased by estrogen and interleukin-1beta and that AKR1B1 exhibited PGF2α synthase activity in the porcine uterine endometrium. These results in pigs indicate that the PGE2 and PGF2α metabolic enzymes are expressed stage specifically in the endometrium during pregnancy and regulate the abundance of PGE2 and PGF2α in the uterus at the time of implantation and that AKR1B1 may act as a major PGF synthase in the endometrium during early pregnancy.

Effects of calcium salts of soybean oil on factors that influence pregnancy establishment in Bos indicus beef cows

The objective of this experiment was to compare fatty acid (FA) concentrations in plasma and reproductive tissues as well as hormones and expression of genes associated with pregnancy establishment in beef cows supplemented or not with Ca salts of soybean oil (CSSO) beginning after timed AI. Ninety nonlactating multiparous Nelore (Bos indicus) cows were timed inseminated on d 0 of the experiment and divided into 18 groups of 5 cows/group. Groups were randomly assigned to receive (as-fed basis) 100 g of a protein-mineral mix plus 100 g of ground corn per cow daily in addition to 1) 100 g/cow daily of CSSO (n = 9) or 2) 100 g/cow daily of kaolin (CON; rumen-inert indigestible substance; n = 9). All groups were maintained in a single Brachiaria brizanta pasture (24 ha) with ad libitum access to forage and water. However, groups were segregated daily and offered treatments individually at the working facility during the experimental period (d 0 to 18). Blood samples were collected and transrectal ultrasonography was performed to verify ovulation and estimate corpus luteum (CL) volume immediately before AI (d 0) and on d 7 and 18 of the experiment. On d 19, 36 cows (18 cows/treatment; 2 cows/group) diagnosed without the presence of a CL on d 0 but with a CL greater than 0.38 cm(3) in volume on d 7 and 18 were slaughtered for collection of conceptus, uterine luminal flushing, and tissue samples from the CL and endometrium. Cows receiving CSSO had greater concentrations of linoleic and other ω-6 FA in plasma (P < 0.01), endometrium (P ≤ 0.05), CL (P ≤ 0.05), and conceptus (P ≤ 0.08) compared to CON. On d 7 of the experiment, CSSO-supplemented cows had greater plasma progesterone concentrations (P < 0.01) and CL volume (P = 0.02) compared to CON, whereas no treatment effects were detected (P ≥ 0.15) for these parameters on d 18 (treatment × day interaction; P < 0.01). Cows receiving CSSO tended (P = 0.09) to have greater concentrations of interferon-tau in the uterine flushing media compared with CON. However, no treatment effects were detected for mRNA expression genes associated with pregnancy establishment in endometrial, CL, and conceptus samples (P ≥ 0.12). In summary, supplementing beef cows with 100 g of CSSO beginning after AI favored incorporation of ω-6 FA into their circulation, reproductive tissues, and conceptus, without impacting expression of genes associated with pregnancy establishment on d 19 of gestation.