Reclassification of Rhizobium tropici type A strains as Rhizobium leucaenae sp. nov

Diversity of sporadic symbionts and nonsymbiotic endophytic bacteria isolated from nodules of woody, shrub, and food legumes in Ethiopia

Fifty-five bacterial isolates were obtained from surface-sterilized nodules of woody and shrub legumes growing in Ethiopia: Crotalaria spp., Indigofera spp., and Erythrina brucei, and the food legumes soybean and common bean. Based on partial 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the majority of the isolates were identified as Gram-negative bacteria belonging to the genera Achromobacter, Agrobacterium, Burkholderia, Cronobacter, Enterobacter, Mesorhizobium, Novosphingobium, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Rahnella, Rhizobium, Serratia, and Variovorax. Seven isolates were Gram-positive bacteria belonging to the genera Bacillus, Paenibacillus, Planomicrobium, and Rhodococcus. Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprinting showed that each strain was genetically distinct. According to phylogenetic analysis of recA, glnII, rpoB, and 16S rRNA gene sequences, Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, and Agrobacterium were further classified into six different genospecies: Agrobacterium spp., Agrobacterium radiobacter, Rhizobium sp., Rhizobium phaseoli, Mesorhizobium sp., and putative new Rhizobium species. The strains from R. phaseoli, Rhizobium sp. IAR30, and Mesorhizobium sp. ERR6 induced nodules on their host plants. The other strains did not form nodules on their original host. Nine endophytic bacterial strains representing seven genera, Agrobacterium, Burkholderia, Paenibacillus, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, and Serratia, were found to colonize nodules of Crotalaria incana and common bean on co-inoculation with symbiotic rhizobia. Four endophytic Rhizobium and two Agrobacterium strains had identical nifH gene sequences with symbiotic Rhizobium strains, suggesting horizontal gene transfer. Most symbiotic and nonsymbiotic endophytic bacteria showed plant growth-promoting properties in vitro, which indicate their potential role in the promotion of plant growth when colonizing plant roots and the rhizosphere.

Rhizobium calliandrae sp. nov., Rhizobium mayense sp. nov. and Rhizobium jaguaris sp. nov., rhizobial species nodulating the medicinal legume Calliandra grandiflora

Calliandra grandiflora has been used as a medicinal plant for thousands of years in Mexico. Rhizobial strains were obtained from root nodules of C. grandiflora collected from different geographical regions in Chiapas and characterized by BOX-PCR, amplified rDNA restriction analysis (ARDRA) and 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. Most isolates corresponded to members of the genus Rhizobium and those not related to species with validly published names were further characterized by recA, atpD, rpoB and nifH gene phylogenies, phenotypic and DNA–DNA hybridization analyses. Three novel related species of the genus Rhizobium within the ‘ Rhizobium tropici group’ share the same symbiovar that may be named sv. calliandrae. The names proposed for the three novel species are Rhizobium calliandrae sp. nov. (type strain, CCGE524T = ATCC BAA-2435T = CIP 110456T = LBP2-1T), Rhizobium mayense sp. nov. (type strain, CCGE526T = ATCC BAA-2446T = CIP 110454T = NSJP1-1T) and Rhizobium jaguaris sp. nov. (type strain, CCGE525T = ATCC BAA-2445T = CIP 110453T = SJP1-2T).

Effect of leguminous lectins on the growth of Rhizobium tropici CIAT899

Rhizobium tropici is a Gram-negative bacterium that induces nodules and fixed atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic association with Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean) and some other leguminous species. Lectins are proteins that specifically bind to carbohydrates and, consequently, modulate different biological functions. In this study, the d-glucose/d-mannose-binding lectins (from seeds of Dioclea megacarpa, D. rostrata and D. violacea) and d-galactose-binding lectins (from seeds of Bauhinia variegata, Erythina velutina and Vatairea macrocarpa) were purified using chromatographic techniques and evaluated for their effect on the growth of R. tropici CIAT899. All lectins were assayed with a satisfactory degree of purity according to SDS-PAGE analysis, and stimulated bacterial growth; in particular, the Dioclea rostrata lectin was the most active among all tested proteins. As confirmed in the present study, both d-galactose- and d-glucose/d-mannose-binding lectins purified from the seeds of leguminous plants may be powerful biotechnological tools to stimulate the growth of R. tropici CIAT99, thus improving symbiotic interaction between rhizobia and common bean and, hence, the production of this field crop.

Fast induction of biosynthetic polysaccharide genes lpxA, lpxE, and rkpI of Rhizobium sp. strain PRF 81 by common bean seed exudates is indicative of a key role in symbiosis

Rhizobial surface polysaccharides (SPS) are, together with nodulation (Nod) factors, recognized as key molecules for establishment of rhizobia-legume symbiosis. In Rhizobium tropici, an important nitrogen-fixing symbiont of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), molecular structures and symbiotic roles of the SPS are poorly understood. In this study, Rhizobium sp. strain PRF 81 genes, belonging to the R. tropici group, were investigated: lpxA and lpxE, involved in biosynthesis and modification of the lipid-A anchor of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and rkpI, involved in synthesis of a lipid carrier required for production of capsular polysaccharides (KPS). Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis revealed, for the first time, that inducers released from common bean seeds strongly stimulated expression of all three SPS genes. When PRF 81 cells were grown for 48 h in the presence of seed exudates, twofold increases (p < 0.05) in the transcription levels of lpxE, lpxA, and rkpI genes were observed. However, higher increases (p < 0.05) in transcription rates, about 50-fold for lpxE and about 30-fold for lpxA and rkpI, were observed after only 5 min of incubation with common bean seed exudates. Evolutionary analyses revealed that lpxA and lpxE of PRF81 and of the type strain of R. tropici CIAT899(T)clustered with orthologous Rhizobium radiobacter and were more related to R. etli and Rhizobium leguminosarum, while rkpI was closer to the Sinorhizobium sp. group. Upregulation of lpxE, lpxA, and rkpI genes suggests that seed exudates can modulate production of SPS of Rhizobium sp. PRF81, leading to cell wall changes necessary for symbiosis establishment.

Genomic basis of broad host range and environmental adaptability of Rhizobium tropici CIAT 899 and Rhizobium sp. PRF 81 which are used in inoculants for common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

BACKGROUND

Rhizobium tropici CIAT 899 and Rhizobium sp. PRF 81 are α-Proteobacteria that establish nitrogen-fixing symbioses with a range of legume hosts. These strains are broadly used in commercial inoculants for application to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) in South America and Africa. Both strains display intrinsic resistance to several abiotic stressful conditions such as low soil pH and high temperatures, which are common in tropical environments, and to several antimicrobials, including pesticides. The genetic determinants of these interesting characteristics remain largely unknown.

RESULTS

Genome sequencing revealed that CIAT 899 and PRF 81 share a highly-conserved symbiotic plasmid (pSym) that is present also in Rhizobium leucaenae CFN 299, a rhizobium displaying a similar host range. This pSym seems to have arisen by a co-integration event between two replicons. Remarkably, three distinct nodA genes were found in the pSym, a characteristic that may contribute to the broad host range of these rhizobia. Genes for biosynthesis and modulation of plant-hormone levels were also identified in the pSym. Analysis of genes involved in stress response showed that CIAT 899 and PRF 81 are well equipped to cope with low pH, high temperatures and also with oxidative and osmotic stresses. Interestingly, the genomes of CIAT 899 and PRF 81 had large numbers of genes encoding drug-efflux systems, which may explain their high resistance to antimicrobials. Genome analysis also revealed a wide array of traits that may allow these strains to be successful rhizosphere colonizers, including surface polysaccharides, uptake transporters and catabolic enzymes for nutrients, diverse iron-acquisition systems, cell wall-degrading enzymes, type I and IV pili, and novel T1SS and T5SS secreted adhesins.

CONCLUSIONS

Availability of the complete genome sequences of CIAT 899 and PRF 81 may be exploited in further efforts to understand the interaction of tropical rhizobia with common bean and other legume hosts.

Change in land use alters the diversity and composition of Bradyrhizobium communities and led to the introduction of Rhizobium etli into the tropical rain forest of Los Tuxtlas (Mexico)

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the Bradyrhizobium genus are major symbionts of legume plants in American tropical forests, but little is known about the effects of deforestation and change in land use on their diversity and community structure. Forest clearing is followed by cropping of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and maize as intercropped plants in Los Tuxtlas tropical forest of Mexico. The identity of bean-nodulating rhizobia in this area is not known. Using promiscuous trap plants, bradyrhizobia were isolated from soil samples collected in Los Tuxtlas undisturbed forest, and in areas where forest was cleared and land was used as crop fields or as pastures, or where secondary forests were established. Rhizobia were also trapped by using bean plants. Bradyrhizobium strains were classified into genospecies by dnaK sequence analysis supported by recA, glnII and 16S-23S rDNA IGS loci analyses. A total of 29 genospecies were identified, 24 of which did not correspond to any described taxa. A reduction in Bradyrhizobium diversity was observed when forest was turned to crop fields or pastures. Diversity seemed to recover to primary forest levels in secondary forests that derived from abandoned crop fields or pastures. The shifts in diversity were not related to soil characteristics but seemingly to the density of nodulating legumes present at each land use system (LUS). Bradyrhizobium community composition in soils was dependent on land use; however, similarities were observed between crop fields and pastures but not among forest and secondary forest. Most Bradyrhizobium genospecies present in forest were not recovered or become rare in the other LUS. Rhizobium etli was found as the dominant bean-nodulating rhizobia present in crop fields and pastures, and evidence was found that this species was introduced in Los Tuxtlas forest.

Rhizobium subbaraonis sp. nov., an endolithic bacterium isolated from beach sand

Two strains (JC85(T) and JC108) of Gram-stain-negative, motile bacteria were isolated from endolithic beach sand samples on an oligotrophic medium. Based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, both strains were identified as belonging to the genus Rhizobium. Strain JC108 had 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity of 100 % with Rhizobium pusense NRCPB10(T) and formed a cluster with this strain. Strain JC85(T) had 96.9 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity and was 18 % related (based on DNA-DNA hybridization) to Rhizobium borbori DN316(T). With other strains of the genus Rhizobium, the 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity was less than 96.3 %. Strain JC85(T) could tolerate up to 3 % salinity, fix N(2), was resistant to ampicillin (10 µg) and was positive for catalase and oxidase. The major fatty acid was C(18 : 1)ω7c (69 %) with minor amounts of C(19 : 0) cyclo ω8c (8.9 %), C(16 : 0) (6.9 %), C(12 : 0) (5.7 %) and C(19 : 1)ω7c/C(19 : 1)ω6c (2.2 %). Polar lipids of strain JC85(T) include two unidentified aminophospholipids (APL1,2), two unidentified phospholipids (PL1,2), phosphatidylcholine and four unidentified lipids (L1-4). Q-10 is the major quinone of strain JC85(T). Based on polyphasic taxonomic analysis, strain JC85(T) represents a novel species for which, the name Rhizobium subbaraonis JC85(T) is proposed. The type strain is JC85(T) ( = DSM 24765(T) = KCTC 23614(T)).

Rhizobium grahamii sp. nov., from nodules of Dalea leporina, Leucaena leucocephala and Clitoria ternatea, and Rhizobium mesoamericanum sp. nov., from nodules of Phaseolus vulgaris, siratro, cowpea and Mimosa pudica

Two novel related Rhizobium species, Rhizobium grahamii sp. nov. and Rhizobium mesoamericanum sp. nov., were identified by a polyphasic approach using DNA-DNA hybridization, whole-genome sequencing and phylogenetic and phenotypic characterization including nodulation of Leucaena leucocephala and Phaseolus vulgaris (bean). As similar bacteria were found in the Los Tuxtlas rainforest in Mexico and in Central America, we suggest the existence of a Mesoamerican microbiological corridor. The type strain of Rhizobium grahamii sp. nov. is CCGE 502(T) (= ATCC BAA-2124(T) = CFN 242(T) = Dal4(T) = HAMBI 3152(T)) and that of Rhizobium mesoamericanum sp. nov. is CCGE 501(T) (= ATCC BAA-2123(T) = HAMBI 3151(T) = CIP 110148(T) = 1847(T)).