Aquaporin 0 enhances gap junction coupling via its cell adhesion function and interaction with connexin 50

Functional characterization of an AQP0 missense mutation, R33C, that causes dominant congenital lens cataract, reveals impaired cell-to-cell adhesion

Aquaporin 0 (AQP0) performs dual functions in the lens fiber cells, as a water pore and as a cell-to-cell adhesion molecule. Mutations in AQP0 cause severe lens cataract in both humans and mice. An arginine to cysteine missense mutation at amino acid 33 (R33C) produced congenital autosomal dominant cataract in a Chinese family for five generations. We re-created this mutation in wild type human AQP0 (WT-AQP0) cDNA by site-directed mutagenesis, and cloned and expressed the mutant AQP0 (AQP0-R33C) in heterologous expression systems. Mutant AQP0-R33C showed proper trafficking and membrane localization like WT-AQP0. Functional studies conducted in Xenopus oocytes showed no significant difference (P > 0.05) in water permeability between AQP0-R33C and WT-AQP0. However, the cell-to-cell adhesion property of AQP0-R33C was significantly reduced (P < 0.001) compared to that of WT-AQP0, indicated by cell aggregation and cell-to-cell adhesion assays. Scrape-loading assay using Lucifer Yellow dye showed reduction in cell-to-cell adhesion affecting gap junction coupling (P < 0.001). The data provided suggest that this mutation might not have caused significant alterations in protein folding since there was no obstruction in protein trafficking or water permeation. Reduction in cell-to-cell adhesion and development of cataract suggest that the conserved positive charge of Extracellular Loop A may play an important role in bringing fiber cells closer. The proposed schematic models illustrate that cell-to-cell adhesion elicited by AQP0 is vital for lens transparency and homeostasis.

Mutations in AQP5, encoding a water-channel protein, cause autosomal-dominant diffuse nonepidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma

Autosomal-dominant diffuse nonepidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma is characterized by the adoption of a white, spongy appearance of affected areas upon exposure to water. After exome sequencing, missense mutations were identified in AQP5, encoding water-channel protein aquaporin-5 (AQP5). Protein-structure analysis indicates that these AQP5 variants have the potential to elicit an effect on normal channel regulation. Immunofluorescence data reveal the presence of AQP5 at the plasma membrane in the stratum granulosum of both normal and affected palmar epidermis, indicating that the altered AQP5 proteins are trafficked in the normal manner. We demonstrate here a role for AQP5 in the palmoplantar epidermis and propose that the altered AQP5 proteins retain the ability to form open channels in the cell membrane and conduct water.

L-type calcium channels play a critical role in maintaining lens transparency by regulating phosphorylation of aquaporin-0 and myosin light chain and expression of connexins

Homeostasis of intracellular calcium is crucial for lens cytoarchitecture and transparency, however, the identity of specific channel proteins regulating calcium influx within the lens is not completely understood. Here we examined the expression and distribution profiles of L-type calcium channels (LTCCs) and explored their role in morphological integrity and transparency of the mouse lens, using cDNA microarray, RT-PCR, immunoblot, pharmacological inhibitors and immunofluorescence analyses. The results revealed that Ca (V) 1.2 and 1.3 channels are expressed and distributed in both the epithelium and cortical fiber cells in mouse lens. Inhibition of LTCCs with felodipine or nifedipine induces progressive cortical cataract formation with time, in association with decreased lens weight in ex-vivo mouse lenses. Histological analyses of felodipine treated lenses revealed extensive disorganization and swelling of cortical fiber cells resembling the phenotype reported for altered aquaporin-0 activity without detectable cytotoxic effects. Analysis of both soluble and membrane rich fractions from felodipine treated lenses by SDS-PAGE in conjunction with mass spectrometry and immunoblot analyses revealed decreases in β-B1-crystallin, Hsp-90, spectrin and filensin. Significantly, loss of transparency in the felodipine treated lenses was preceded by an increase in aquaporin-0 serine-235 phosphorylation and levels of connexin-50, together with decreases in myosin light chain phosphorylation and the levels of 14-3-3ε, a phosphoprotein-binding regulatory protein. Felodipine treatment led to a significant increase in gene expression of connexin-50 and 46 in the mouse lens. Additionally, felodipine inhibition of LTCCs in primary cultures of mouse lens epithelial cells resulted in decreased intracellular calcium, and decreased actin stress fibers and myosin light chain phosphorylation, without detectable cytotoxic response. Taken together, these observations reveal a crucial role for LTCCs in regulation of expression, activity and stability of aquaporin-0, connexins, cytoskeletal proteins, and the mechanical properties of lens, all of which have a vital role in maintaining lens function and cytoarchitecture.

Further analysis of the lens of ephrin-A5-/- mice: development of postnatal defects

PURPOSE

The cells of the mammalian lens must be carefully organized and regulated to maintain clarity. Recent studies have identified the Eph receptor ligand ephrin-A5 as a major contributor to lens development, as mice lacking ephrin-A5 develop abnormal lenses, resulting in cataracts. As a follow-up to our previous study on the cataracts observed in ephrin-A5(-/-) animals, we have further examined the morphological and molecular changes in the ephrin-A5(-/-) lens.

METHODS

Wild-type and ephrin-A5(-/-) eyes at various ages were fixed, sectioned, and examined using histological techniques. Protein expression and localization were determined using immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

Lens abnormalities in the ephrin-A5(-/-) animals are observed at postnatal stages, with lens opacity occurring by postnatal day 21. Structural defects in the lens are first observed in the outer lens fiber cell region where cells in the ephrin-A5(-/-) lens are severely disorganized. Ephrin-A5 and the Eph receptor EphA2 are expressed during early ocular development and continue to be expressed into postnatal stages. The cataracts in the ephrin-A5(-/-) mutants occur regardless of the presence of the CP49 mutation.

CONCLUSIONS

In this follow-up study, we have uncovered additional details explicating the mechanisms underlying ephrin-A5 function in the lens. Furthermore, elucidation of the expression of ephrin-A5 and the Eph receptor EphA2 in the lens supports a fundamental role for this receptor-ligand complex in lens development. These observations, in concert with our previous study, strongly suggest that ephrin-A5 has a critical role in postnatal lens fiber organization to maintain lens transparency.

Intracellular lumen extension requires ERM-1-dependent apical membrane expansion and AQP-8-mediated flux

Many unicellular tubes such as capillaries form lumens intracellularly, a process that is not well understood. Here we show that the cortical membrane organizer ERM-1 is required to expand the intracellular apical/lumenal membrane and its actin undercoat during single-cell C.elegans excretory canal morphogenesis. We characterize AQP-8, identified in an ERM-1 overexpression (ERM-1[++]) suppressor screen, as a canalicular aquaporin that interacts with ERM-1 in lumen extension in a mercury-sensitive manner, implicating water-channel activity. AQP-8 is transiently recruited to the lumen by ERM-1, co-localizing in peri-lumenal cuffs interspaced along expanding canals. An ERM-1[++]-mediated increase in the number of lumen-associated canaliculi is reversed by AQP-8 depletion. We propose that the ERM-1-AQP-8 interaction propels lumen extension by translumenal flux, suggesting a direct morphogenetic effect of water-channel-regulated fluid pressure.

Gap-junction-mediated cell-to-cell communication

Cells of multicellular organisms need to communicate with each other and have evolved various mechanisms for this purpose, the most direct and quickest of which is through channels that directly connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells. Such intercellular channels span the two plasma membranes and the intercellular space and result from the docking of two hemichannels. These channels are densely packed into plasma-membrane spatial microdomains termed "gap junctions" and allow cells to exchange ions and small molecules directly. A hemichannel is a hexameric torus of junctional proteins around an aqueous pore. Vertebrates express two families of gap-junction proteins: the well-characterized connexins and the more recently discovered pannexins, the latter being related to invertebrate innexins ("invertebrate connexins"). Some gap-junctional hemichannels also appear to mediate cell-extracellular communication. Communicating junctions play crucial roles in the maintenance of homeostasis, morphogenesis, cell differentiation and growth control in metazoans. Gap-junctional channels are not passive conduits, as previously long regarded, but use "gating" mechanisms to open and close the central pore in response to biological stimuli (e.g. a change in the transjunctional voltage). Their permeability is finely tuned by complex mechanisms that have just begun to be identified. Given their ubiquity and diversity, gap junctions play crucial roles in a plethora of functions and their dysfunctions are involved in a wide range of diseases. However, the exact mechanisms involved remain poorly understood.

High-speed atomic force microscopy: cooperative adhesion and dynamic equilibrium of junctional microdomain membrane proteins

Junctional microdomains, paradigm for membrane protein segregation in functional assemblies, in eye lens fiber cell membranes are constituted of lens-specific aquaporin-0 tetramers (AQP0(4)) and connexin (Cx) hexamers, termed connexons. Both proteins have double function to assure nutrition and mediate adhesion of lens cells. Here we use high-speed atomic force microscopy to examine microdomain protein dynamics at the single-molecule level. We found that the adhesion function of head-to-head associated AQP0(4) and Cx is cooperative. This finding provides first experimental evidence for the mechanistic importance for junctional microdomain formation. From the observation of lateral association-dissociation events of AQP0(4), we determine that the enthalpic energy gain of a single AQP0(4)-AQP0(4) interaction in the membrane plane is -2.7 k(B)T, sufficient to drive formation of microdomains. Connexon association is stronger as dynamics are rarely observed, explaining their rim localization in junctional microdomains.

Brain connexins in demyelinating diseases: therapeutic potential of glial targets

Several demyelinating syndromes have been linked to mutations in glial gap junction proteins, the connexins. Although mutations in connexins of the myelinating cells, Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes, were initially described, recent data have shown that astrocytes also play a major role in the demyelination process. Alterations in astrocytic proteins directly affect the oligodendrocytes' ability to maintain myelin structure, and associated astrocytic proteins that regulate water and ionic fluxes, including aquaporins, can also regulate myelin integrity. Here, we will review the main evidence from human disorders and transgenic mouse models that implicate glial gap junction proteins in demyelinating diseases and the therapeutic potential of some of these targets. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Electrical Synapses.

A novel role for aquaporin-5 in enhancing microtubule organization and stability

Aquaporin-5 (AQP5) is a water-specific channel located on the apical surface of airway epithelial cells. In addition to regulating transcellular water permeability, AQP5 can regulate paracellular permeability, though the mechanisms by which this occurs have not been determined. Microtubules also regulate paracellular permeability. Here, we report that AQP5 promotes microtubule assembly and helps maintain the assembled microtubule steady state levels with slower turnover dynamics in cells. Specifically, reduced levels of AQP5 correlated with lower levels of assembled microtubules and decreased paracellular permeability. In contrast, overexpression of AQP5 increased assembly of microtubules, with evidence of increased MT stability, and promoted the formation of long straight microtubules in the apical domain of the epithelial cells. These findings indicate that AQP5-mediated regulation of microtubule dynamics modulates airway epithelial barrier properties and epithelial function.

Aquaporins in clinical medicine

The aquaporins are a family of membrane water channels, some of which also transport glycerol. They are involved in a wide range of physiological functions (including water/salt homeostasis, exocrine fluid secretion, and epidermal hydration) and human diseases (including glaucoma, cancer, epilepsy, and obesity). At the cellular level, aquaporin-mediated osmotic water transport across cell plasma membranes facilitates transepithelial fluid transport, cell migration, and neuroexcitation; aquaporin-mediated glycerol transport regulates cell proliferation, adipocyte metabolism, and epidermal water retention. Genetic diseases caused by loss-of-function mutations in aquaporins include nephrogenic diabetes insipidus and congenital cataracts. The neuroinflammatory demyelinating disease neuromyelitis optica is marked by pathogenic autoantibodies against astrocyte water channel aquaporin-4. There remain broad opportunities for the development of aquaporin-based diagnostics and therapeutics. Disease-relevant aquaporin polymorphisms are beginning to be explored. There is great promise in the development of small-molecule aquaporin modulators for therapy of some types of refractory edema, brain swelling, neuroinflammation, glaucoma, epilepsy, cancer, pain, and obesity.

Gap junctional channels are parts of multiprotein complexes

Gap junctional channels are a class of membrane channels composed of transmembrane channel-forming integral membrane proteins termed connexins, innexins or pannexins that mediate direct cell-to-cell or cell-to extracellular medium communication in almost all animal tissues. The activity of these channels is tightly regulated, particularly by intramolecular modifications as phosphorylations of proteins and via the formation of multiprotein complexes where pore-forming subunits bind to auxiliary channel subunits and associate with scaffolding proteins that play essential roles in channel localization and activity. Scaffolding proteins link signaling enzymes, substrates, and potential effectors (such as channels) into multiprotein signaling complexes that may be anchored to the cytoskeleton. Protein-protein interactions play essential roles in channel localization and activity and, besides their cell-to-cell channel-forming functions, gap junctional proteins now appear involved in different cellular functions (e.g. transcriptional and cytoskeletal regulations). The present review summarizes the recent progress regarding the proteins capable of interacting with junctional proteins and highlights the function of these protein-protein interactions in cell physiology and aberrant function in diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Communicating junctions, composition, structure and functions.

Unique and analogous functions of aquaporin 0 for fiber cell architecture and ocular lens transparency

Aquaporin (AQP) 1 and AQP0 water channels are expressed in lens epithelial and fiber cells, respectively, facilitating fluid circulation for nourishing the avascular lens to maintain transparency. Even though AQP0 water permeability is 40-fold less than AQP1, AQP0 is selectively expressed in the fibers. Delimited AQP0 fiber expression is attributed to a unique structural role as an adhesion protein. To validate this notion, we determined if wild type (WT) lens ultrastructure and fiber cell adhesion are different in AQP0(-/-), and TgAQP1(+/+)/AQP0(-/-) mice that transgenically express AQP1 (TgAQP1) in fiber cells without AQP0 (AQP0(-/-)). In WT, lenses were transparent with 'Y' sutures. Fibers contained opposite end curvature, lateral interdigitations, hexagonal shape, and were arranged as concentric growth shells. AQP0(-/-) lenses were cataractous, lacked 'Y' sutures, ordered packing and well-defined lateral interdigitations. TgAQP1(+/+)/AQP0(-/-) lenses showed improvement in transparency and lateral interdigitations in the outer cortex while inner cortex and nuclear fibers were severely disintegrated. Transmission electron micrographs exhibited tightly packed fiber cells in WT whereas AQP0(-/-) and TgAQP1(+/+)/AQP0(-/-) lenses had wide extracellular spaces. Fibers were easily separable by teasing in AQP0(-/-) and TgAQP1(+/+)/AQP0(-/-) lenses compared to WT. Our data suggest that the increased water permeability through AQP1 does not compensate for loss of AQP0 expression in TgAQP1(+/+)/AQP0(-/-) mice. Fiber cell AQP0 expression is required to maintain their organization, which is a requisite for lens transparency. AQP0 appears necessary for cell-to-cell adhesion and thereby to minimize light scattering since in the AQP0(-/-) and TgAQP1(+/+)/AQP0(-/-) lenses, fiber cell disorganization was evident.