Long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine dosed every 2 months in adults with HIV-1 infection (ATLAS-2M), 48-week results: a randomised, multicentre, open-label, phase 3b, non-inferiority study

Patient and Physician Preferences for Regimen Attributes for the Treatment of HIV in the United States and Canada

A long-acting injectable (LAI) antiretroviral therapy (ART) regimen is now available as a treatment option for virologically suppressed adults with HIV-1. This study assessed preference for a LAI regimen using an online survey of virally suppressed people living with HIV (PLWH) and physicians treating HIV in the US and Canada. Preference was elicited in a discrete choice experiment (DCE) with three choice options (switch to a LAI regimen, switch to another daily oral ART regimen, or stay on their current daily oral ART regimen) and four treatment attributes. A total of 553 PLWH and 450 physicians completed the survey. From the DCE results, 59% of PLWH were predicted to prefer a LAI over an alternative oral ART or staying on their current oral treatment, and 55–66% of physicians were predicted to recommend LAI for PLWH, depending on the treatment challenge scenario presented. PLWH indicated LAI would remove daily reminders of HIV (75%) and reduce feelings of being stigmatized (68%). A majority of PLWH and physicians preferred a LAI over oral ART to overcome treatment challenges such as daily pill burden and adherence. These benefits of LAI ART along with preferences of PLWH and physicians can help to inform ART choice.

Contemporary Medicinal Chemistry Strategies for the Discovery and Development of Novel HIV-1 Non-nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors

Currently, HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) are a major component of the highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) regimen. However, the occurrence of drug-resistant strains and adverse reactions after long-term usage have inevitably compromised the clinical application of NNRTIs. Therefore, the development of novel inhibitors with distinct anti-resistance profiles and better pharmacological properties is still an enormous challenge. Herein, we summarize state-of-the-art medicinal chemistry strategies for the discovery of potent NNRTIs, such as structure-based design strategies, contemporary computer-aided drug design, covalent-binding strategies, and the application of multi-target-directed ligands. The strategies described here will facilitate the identification of promising HIV-1 NNRTIs.

Two-Drug Regimens for HIV-Current Evidence, Research Gaps and Future Challenges

During the last 30 years, antiretroviral treatment (ART) for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection has been continuously evolving. Since 1996, three-drug regimens (3DR) have been standard-of-care for HIV treatment and are based on a protease inhibitor (PI) or a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) plus two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). The effectiveness of first-generation 3DRs allowed a dramatic increase in the life expectancy of HIV-infected patients, although it was associated with several side effects and ART-related toxicities. The development of novel two-drug regimens (2DRs) started in the mid-2000s in order to minimize side effects, reduce drug-drug interactions and improve treatment compliance. Several clinical trials compared 2DRs and 3DRs in treatment-naïve and treatment-experienced patients and showed the non-inferiority of 2DRs in terms of efficacy, which led to 2DRs being used as first-line treatment in several clinical scenarios, according to HIV clinical guidelines. In this review, we summarize the current evidence, research gaps and future prospects of 2DRs.

Long-term Efficacy, Safety, and Durability of Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine as 2-Drug Oral Maintenance Therapy After 6 Years of Study

Background

In the LATTE study, daily oral cabotegravir + rilpivirine demonstrated higher rates of efficacy than efavirenz + 2 nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) through Week 96 in antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naive adults with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1. We present the results from 6 years of continued treatment with oral cabotegravir + rilpivirine.

Methods

LATTE was a phase IIb, randomized, multicenter, partially blinded, dose-ranging study in ART-naive adults with HIV-1. After a 24-week induction phase with cabotegravir + 2 NRTIs, participants with HIV-1 ribonucleic acid (RNA) <50 copies/mL were randomized to receive cabotegravir (10, 30, or 60 mg) + rilpivirine (25 mg) in the maintenance phase through Week 96 and switched to cabotegravir 30 mg + rilpivirine 25 mg in the open-label phase through Week 312.

Results

Of 160 participants who entered the maintenance phase, 111 completed the study at Week 312. At Week 312, 105 (66%) participants maintained HIV-1 RNA <50 copies/mL, 15 (9%) had HIV-1 RNA ≥50 copies/mL, and 40 (25%) had no virologic data. Eight participants met protocol-defined virologic failure criteria through Week 312, 2 of whom met protocol-defined virologic failure criteria after Week 144. Six participants developed treatment-emergent resistance to 1 or both agents during the study, 3 of whom developed integrase inhibitor resistance substitutions. Two participants (1%) reported drug-related serious adverse events. Few adverse events led to withdrawal during the open-label phase (n = 5, 3%).

Conclusions

Oral cabotegravir + rilpivirine demonstrated efficacy in the majority of participants and an acceptable safety profile through 6 years of treatment, demonstrating its durability as maintenance therapy for HIV-1.

Weight Changes With Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitor Therapy in the Management of HIV Infection: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

To describe weight changes with integrase strand transfer inhibitor (INSTI) therapy.

DATA SOURCES

A literature search was performed (through December 15, 2021) using the PubMed and CINAHL databases using the search terms: "integrase inhibitors," "integrase strand transfer inhibitors," and "weight."

STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION

Studies were included that provided relevant information on weight or body mass index (BMI) changes on INSTI therapy. Controlled or observational studies comparing different INSTI therapies or compared INSTI therapy to another class of antiretroviral therapy were included.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Forty-three articles met criteria for inclusion, and data are presented. Although some trials have observed similar weight gains between INSTI, protease inhibitor, and non-nucleoside inhibitor therapies, the increase appears to be greater with INSTI therapy, particularly during initiation of therapy. Risk factors for weight gain with INSTI therapy include female gender, lower CD4 count, and combined use of tenofovir alafenamide. Within the INSTI class, dolutegravir and bictegravir appear to have the greatest propensity for weight gain.

RELEVANCE TO PATIENT CARE AND CLINICAL PRACTICE

INSTI-based therapies are the preferred initial management of HIV infection. Discerning the factors contributing to weight changes on INSTI therapy and risks of associated health-related outcomes is important to both the management of weight gain and HIV medical management.

CONCLUSIONS

Within the INSTI class, dolutegravir and bictegravir may be associated with the greatest risk for weight gain particularly when combined with tenofovir alafenamide. Further research is needed to determine mechanisms for observed weight changes and any contributions to clinically significant metabolic and cardiovascular adverse outcomes associated with INSTI therapy.

Perspectives on preparing for long-acting injectable treatment for HIV among consumer, clinical and nonclinical stakeholders: A qualitative study exploring the anticipated challenges and opportunities for implementation in Los Angeles County

Long-acting injectable (LAI) antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a novel HIV treatment option for people with HIV. The first LAI ART regimen for HIV treatment received regulatory approval in the United States in January 2021. In February 2020, we collected qualitative data from 18 consumers and 23 clinical and non-clinical stakeholders to catalog anticipated individual-consumer, healthcare system, and structural levels barriers and facilitators to LAI ART implementation in Los Angeles County, California. Thematic analysis was guided by the CFIR implementation science model. CFIR constructs of intervention characteristics, individual characteristics, outer and inner setting, intervention characteristics, and implementation process emerged in analysis. Under intervention characteristics, anticipated facilitators included the relative advantage of LAI ART over pills for adherence and reduced treatment management burden and related anxiety; anticipated barriers included non-adherence to injection appointments, concerns of developing HIV resistance, discomfort with injection and cost. Anticipated facilitators based on individual characteristics included overall acceptability based on knowledge and positive beliefs about LAI ART. Participant noted several characteristics of the outer setting that could negatively impact implementation, such as medical mistrust, external policies, and LAI ART eligibility (i.e., to be virally suppressed prior to initiation). Participants were optimistic about the potential to decrease stigma but expressed that provider willingness for adoption could be hindered by challenges in organizational inner setting related to payment authorizations, increased staffing needs, medication procurement and storage, and provider and healthcare system readiness. Results from this pre-implementation study may inform rollout and scale-up of LAI ART in Los Angeles County.

Long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine for HIV-1 suppression: switch to 2-monthly dosing after 5 years of daily oral therapy

OBJECTIVES

Long-acting formulations of cabotegravir (CAB) and rilpivirine (RPV) have demonstrated efficacy in Phase 3 studies. POLAR (NCT03639311) assessed antiviral activity and safety of CAB+RPV long-acting administered every 2 months (Q2M) in adults living with HIV-1 who previously received daily oral CAB+RPV in LATTE (NCT01641809).

DESIGN

A Phase 2b, multicenter, open-label, rollover study.

METHODS

LATTE participants with plasma HIV-1 RNA less than 50 copies/ml who completed at least 300 weeks on study were eligible. Participants elected to switch to either CAB+RPV long-acting Q2M or daily oral dolutegravir/RPV for maintenance of virologic suppression. The primary endpoint was the proportion of participants with HIV-1 RNA greater than or equal to 50 copies/ml at Month 12 (M12) per the Food and Drug Administration Snapshot algorithm. The incidence of confirmed virologic failure (CVF, two consecutive HIV-1 RNA measurements greater than or equal to 200 copies/ml), as well as safety, laboratory, and patient-reported outcomes (HIV Treatment Satisfaction and preference questionnaires) were also assessed.

RESULTS

Of 97 participants enrolled, 90 chose to receive CAB+RPV long-acting and seven chose dolutegravir/RPV. At M12, no participant had HIV-1 RNA greater than or equal to 50 copies/ml or met the CVF criterion in either treatment group. No new safety signals were identified. Total treatment satisfaction was high at Baseline and remained stable through M12 across both treatment groups. Overall, 88% (n = 77/88) of long-acting arm participants preferred CAB+RPV long-acting to oral CAB+RPV.

CONCLUSION

CAB+RPV long-acting maintained virologic suppression in participants who had previously received daily oral CAB+RPV for at least 5 years in LATTE, with a favorable safety profile. Most participants preferred CAB+RPV long-acting to their prior oral CAB+RPV regimen at M12.

Week 96 extension results of a Phase 3 study evaluating long-acting cabotegravir with rilpivirine for HIV-1 treatment

BACKGROUND

ATLAS (NCT02951052), a phase 3, multicenter, open-label study, demonstrated that switching to injectable cabotegravir (CAB) with rilpivirine (RPV) long-acting dosed every 4 weeks was noninferior at week (W) 48 to continuing three-drug daily oral current antiretroviral therapy (CAR). Results from the W 96 analysis are presented.

METHODS AND DESIGN

Participants completing W 52 of ATLAS were given the option to withdraw, transition to ATLAS-2M (NCT03299049), or enter an Extension Phase to continue long-acting therapy (Long-acting arm) or switch from CAR to long-acting therapy (Switch arm). Endpoints assessed at W 96 included proportion of participants with plasma HIV-1 RNA less than 50 copies/ml, incidence of confirmed virologic failure (CVF; two consecutive HIV-1 RNA ≥200 copies/ml), safety and tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and patient-reported outcomes.

RESULTS

Most participants completing the Maintenance Phase transitioned to ATLAS-2M (88%, n = 502/572). Overall, 52 participants were included in the W 96 analysis of ATLAS; of these, 100% (n = 23/23) and 97% (n = 28/29) in the Long-acting and Switch arms had plasma HIV-1 RNA less than 50 copies/ml at W 96, respectively. One participant had plasma HIV-1 RNA 50 copies/ml or higher in the Switch arm (173 copies/ml). No participants met the CVF criterion during the Extension Phase. No new safety signals were identified. All Switch arm participants surveyed preferred long-acting therapy to their previous daily oral regimen (100%, n = 27/27).

CONCLUSION

In this subgroup of ATLAS, 98% (n = 51/52) of participants at the Extension Phase W 96 analysis maintained virologic suppression with long-acting therapy. Safety, efficacy, and participant preference results support the therapeutic potential of long-acting CAB+RPV treatment for virologically suppressed people living with HIV-1.

A nanofiber based antiviral (TAF) prodrug delivery system

HIV and hepatitis B are two of the most prevalent viruses globally, and despite readily available preventive treatments unforgiving treatment regimens still exist, such as daily doses of medicine that are challenging to maintain especially in poorer countries. More advanced and longer-lasting delivery vehicles can potentially overcome this problem by reducing maintenance requirements and significantly increase access to medicine. Here, we designed a technology to control the delivery of an antiviral drug over a long timeframe via a nanofiber based delivery scaffold that is both easy to produce and use. An antiviral prodrug containing tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) was synthesized by initial conjugation to glycerol monomethacrylate followed by polymerization to form a diblock copolymer (pTAF) using reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT). In order to generate an efficient drug delivery system this copolymer was fabricated into an electrospun nanofiber (ESF) scaffold using blend electrospinning with poly(caprolactone) (PCL) as the carrier polymer. SEM images revealed that the pTAF-PCL ESFs were uniform with an average diameter of (787 ± 0.212 nm), while XPS analysis demonstrated that the pTAF was overrepresented at the surface of the ESFs. Additionally, the pTAF exhibited a sustained release profile over a 2 month period in human serum (HS), suggesting that these types of copolymer-based drugamers can be used in conjunction with electrospinning to produce long-lasting drug delivery systems.

Impact of Integrase Sequences From HIV-1 Subtypes A6/A1 on the In Vitro Potency of Cabotegravir or Rilpivirine

The FLAIR study demonstrated noninferiority of monthly long-acting cabotegravir + rilpivirine versus daily oral dolutegravir/abacavir/lamivudine for maintaining virologic suppression. Three participants who received long-acting therapy had confirmed virologic failure (CVF) at Week 48, and all had HIV-1 that was originally classified as subtype A1 and contained the baseline integrase polymorphism L74I; updated classification algorithms reclassified all 3 as HIV-1 subtype A6. Retrospectively, the impact of L74I on in vitro sensitivity and durability of response to cabotegravir in HIV-1 subtype B and A6 backgrounds was studied. Site-directed L74I and mutations observed in participants with CVF were generated in HIV-1 subtype B and a consensus integrase derived from 3 subtype A6 CVF baseline sequences. Rilpivirine susceptibility was assessed in HIV-1 subtype B and A1 containing reverse transcriptase mutations observed in participants with CVF. HIV-1 subtype B L74I and L74I/G140R mutants and HIV-1 subtype A6 I74L and I74/G140R mutants remained susceptible to cabotegravir; L74I/Q148R double mutants exhibited reduced susceptibility in HIV-1 subtypes B and A6 (half maximal effective capacity fold change, 4.4 and 4.1, respectively). Reduced rilpivirine susceptibility was observed across HIV-1 subtypes B and A1 with resistance-associated mutations K101E or E138K (half maximal effective capacity fold change, 2.21 to 3.09). In cabotegravir breakthrough experiments, time to breakthrough was similar between L74 and I74 viruses across HIV-1 subtypes B and A6; Q148R was selected at low cabotegravir concentrations. Therefore, the L74I integrase polymorphism did not differentially impact in vitro sensitivity to cabotegravir across HIV-1 subtype B and A6 integrase genes (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02938520).

A new paradigm for antiretroviral delivery: long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine for the treatment and prevention of HIV

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cabotegravir (CAB) and rilpivirine (RPV) is the first long-acting injectable antiretroviral therapy (ART) option approved for virologically suppressed adults with HIV-1. In addition, long-acting CAB is a promising agent for HIV preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP). This review focuses on phase 3 clinical trial results and implementation considerations for these long-acting ART and PrEP strategies.

RECENT FINDINGS

Long-acting CAB and RPV administered every 4 weeks demonstrated noninferiority to oral ART through week 96 in both the ATLAS and FLAIR studies, whereas ATLAS-2M found similar efficacy through 96 weeks when the long-acting injectable ART was administered every 8 weeks instead of every 4 weeks. For prevention, two phase 3 trials were stopped early due to fewer incident HIV infections in participants receiving long-acting CAB every 8 weeks compared with daily oral tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-emtricitabine for PrEP. The long-acting therapies were well tolerated across all clinical trials.

SUMMARY

Clinical trial results support the use of long-acting CAB for HIV PrEP and long-acting CAB and RPV as a switch strategy for adults with HIV-1 who are first virologically suppressed with oral ART. Implementation challenges persist, and data are urgently needed in populations who may benefit most from long-acting therapy, including adolescents, pregnant individuals, and those with barriers to medication adherence.

Evaluating Islatravir Administered Via Microneedle Array Patch for Long-Acting HIV Pre-exposure Prophylaxis Using Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modelling

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Technologies for long-acting administration of antiretrovirals (ARVs) for the prevention and treatment of HIV are at the forefront of research initiatives aiming to tackle issues surrounding drug adherence with the current standard of once-daily oral administration. Islatravir (ISL) is an emerging ARV that shows promising characteristics for long-acting prevention and treatment both orally as well as through alternative routes of administration. Microneedle array patches (MAPs) are a pain-free and discreet transdermal delivery technology that offer extended-release administration of nanoparticulate drugs. This study aimed to utilise physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling to predict the pharmacokinetics resulting from ISL administered via MAP and to identify key MAP characteristics required to sustain effective concentrations over extended dosing intervals.

METHODS

A PBPK model describing the conversion of ISL to ISL-triphosphate (ISL-TP) and its whole-body disposition was developed and verified against observed clinical data for orally administered ISL in healthy adults. An intradermal PBPK model was integrated with the ISL PBPK model to predict the dose and nanoparticle release rate required for MAP administration strategies capable of achieving a minimum ISL-TP target concentration of 0.05 pmol/10⁶ PBMCs over extended dosing intervals. MAP design was limited to a maximum therapeutic area of 20 cm² with a dose loading of 4.09 mg/cm² and a minimum duration of 3 months. Due to the lack of available clinical data, a range of nanoparticle release rates and MAP bioavailability scenarios were simulated to provide an overview of potential clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

The ISL PBPK model was successfully verified, with predicted vs observed ratios falling within 0.5-2-fold. ISL MAP doses ranging from 15 to 80 mg were predicted to sustain ISL-TP concentrations above the minimum target concentration at 3, 6 and 12 months after administration. Nanoparticle release rate and MAP bioavailability were found to have a major impact on whether dosing strategies achieved the criteria. Minimum doses of 15 mg and 60 mg with a nanoparticle release rate of 0.0005 h^-1 and bioavailability ranging from 25 to 100% were predicted to achieve effective ISL-TP concentrations up to 3 and 6 months, respectively. Doses of 15 mg and 30 mg with a nanoparticle release rate of 0.0005 h^-1 were also able to attain the target concentration up to 6 months after MAP administration, albeit with a minimum bioavailability of 75% and 50%, respectively. Furthermore, when simulating a bioavailability of 100%, an 80 mg ISL MAP was predicted to sustain ISL-TP concentrations above the minimum target concentration up to 12 months after administration.

CONCLUSIONS

The ISL PBPK model successfully predicted ISL and ISL-TP pharmacokinetics across a range of orally administered regimens. The integrated intradermal PBPK model outlined optimal MAP dose and nanoparticle release rates for effective ISL-TP concentrations up to 12 months, providing justification for further investigation of ISL as a candidate for MAP administration.

Impact of long-acting therapies on the global HIV epidemic

Long-acting antiretroviral drugs have emerged as exciting treatment and preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) options for people with HIV and at risk of HIV. Long-acting regimens may improve dosing convenience, tolerability and cost compared with current daily-based oral therapy. They can also circumvent stigma associated with oral therapy for both treatment and PrEP, thereby improving adherence and outcomes. Yet, multiple challenges remain, many specific to low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs), where the epidemic is most concentrated and HIV prevention and treatment options are limited. To optimize the use of long-acting formulations, key outstanding questions must be addressed. Uncertain costing, scale-up manufacturing, complex delivery systems and implementation challenges are potential barriers when considering the scalability of long-acting ARVs for global use.

Long-Acting Injectable Antiretroviral Agents for HIV Treatment and Prevention

Current oral antiretroviral agents provide highly effective treatment for patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and can be used as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent new HIV infections. Several single-tablet regimens with excellent antiviral efficacy have dramatically improved the quality of life of patients who can adhere to daily oral therapy. However, there is increasing demand on long-acting injectable antiretroviral agents for patients who cannot take oral agents or feel fatigue related to daily pill burden. Monthly long-acting (LA) cabotegravir (CAB) combined with rilpivirine (RPV) has recently been listed as optimizing agent for maintenance of HIV suppression in treatment-experienced patients whose viral load is undetectable for 3 to 6 months. Novel agents with different mechanism of action and long half-life extending dosing interval are being tested in phase 2 and 3 clinical trials. This review summarizes the data of efficacies and safety profiles of LA CAB with RPV regimen, and also new long-acting injectable antiretroviral agents in pipeline.

Protein-losing enteropathy caused by disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in a patient receiving antiretroviral therapy: an autopsy case report

Background

Disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection is an important indicator of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Effective antiretroviral therapy has dramatically reduced the incidence of and mortality due to HIV infection, although drug resistance and poor medication adherence continue to increase the risk of disseminated M. avium complex infection. However, gastrointestinal lesions in cases of disseminated M. avium complex infection resulting in protein-losing enteropathy have been rarely discussed. Therefore, we present a case of protein-losing enteropathy caused by disseminated M. avium complex infection in a patient undergoing antiretroviral therapy.

Case presentation

A 29-year-old man was diagnosed with AIDS 4 years ago and was admitted for a 10-month history of refractory diarrhea and fever. Despite receiving antiretroviral therapy, the viral load remained elevated due to poor medication adherence. The patient was diagnosed with disseminated M. avium complex infection and started on antimycobacterial drugs 2 years before admission. However, the infection remained uncontrolled. The previous hospitalization 1 year before admission was due to hypoalbuminemia and refractory diarrhea. Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy revealed a diagnosis of protein-losing enteropathy caused by intestinal lymphangiectasia, and treatment with intravenous antimycobacterial drugs did not resolve his intestinal lymphangiectasia. The patient inevitably died of sepsis.

Conclusions

Clinical remission is difficult to achieve in patients with AIDS and protein-losing enteropathy caused by disseminated M. avium complex infection due to limited options of parenteral antiretroviral drugs. This report highlights the importance of identifying alternative treatments (such as an injectable formulation) for patients who do not respond to antiretroviral therapy due to protein-losing enteropathy with disseminated M. avium complex infection.

Fighting HIV-1 Persistence: At the Crossroads of "Shoc-K and B-Lock"

Despite the success of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), integrated HIV-1 proviral DNA cannot be eradicated from an infected individual. HAART is not able to eliminate latently infected cells that remain invisible to the immune system. Viral sanctuaries in specific tissues and immune-privileged sites may cause residual viral replication that contributes to HIV-1 persistence. The “Shock or Kick, and Kill” approach uses latency reversing agents (LRAs) in the presence of HAART, followed by cell-killing due to viral cytopathic effects and immune-mediated clearance. Different LRAs may be required for the in vivo reactivation of HIV-1 in different CD4⁺ T cell reservoirs, leading to the activation of cellular transcription factors acting on the integrated proviral HIV-1 LTR. An important requirement for LRA drugs is the reactivation of viral transcription and replication without causing a generalized immune activation. Toll-like receptors, RIG-I like receptors, and STING agonists have emerged recently as a new class of LRAs that augment selective apoptosis in reactivated T lymphocytes. The challenge is to extend in vitro observations to HIV-1 positive patients. Further studies are also needed to overcome the mechanisms that protect latently infected cells from reactivation and/or elimination by the immune system. The Block and Lock alternative strategy aims at using latency promoting/inducing agents (LPAs/LIAs) to block the ability of latent proviruses to reactivate transcription in order to achieve a long term lock down of potential residual virus replication. The Shock and Kill and the Block and Lock approaches may not be only alternative to each other, but, if combined together (one after the other), or given all at once [namely “Shoc-K(kill) and B(block)-Lock”], they may represent a better approach to a functional cure.

An update on neuropsychiatric adverse effects with second-generation integrase inhibitors and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Neuropsychiatric adverse effects (NPAE) associated with integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) are a growing concern, with higher rates in the real-world compared to phase III trials. This paper reviews the incidence, risk factors, and management of NPAE with second-generation INSTIs, INSTI/rilpivirine dual therapy, and doravirine.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent cohort data confirm up to 8% NPAE-associated discontinuations for dolutegravir; NPAE with dolutegravir/rilpivirine therapy are higher than with dolutegravir alone, whereas bictegravir appears similar to dolutegravir. In contrast, NPAE with cabotegravir alone or with rilpivirine appears to be low. Doravirine has NPAE rates similar to rilpivirine and lower than efavirenz. Risk factors for NPAE include female gender, concurrent abacavir use, Sub-Saharan African descent, and age, whereas underlying psychiatric conditions do not appear to increase risk. Strategies to manage NPAE include changing administration time, therapeutic drug monitoring, or regimen modification including within-class INSTI changes. People experiencing NPAE with dolutegravir may tolerate bictegravir.

SUMMARY

Overall, mild to moderate NPAE are associated with INSTIs and newer NNRTIs. Rarely, more severe symptoms may occur and lead to treatment discontinuation. Clinicians should be aware of NPAE to identify and manage drug-related adverse effects.

Long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine dosed every 2 months in adults with HIV-1 infection (ATLAS-2M), 96-week results: a randomised, multicentre, open-label, phase 3b, non-inferiority study

BACKGROUND

Long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine administered monthly or every 2 months might address the challenges associated with daily oral antiretroviral therapy. The ATLAS-2M week 48 results showed non-inferiority of long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine administered every 8 weeks compared with that of every 4 weeks. In this study, we report the efficacy, safety, and tolerability results from the week 96 analysis.

METHODS

ATLAS-2M is a randomised, multicentre, open-label, phase 3b, non-inferiority trial conducted in 13 countries, evaluating the safety and efficacy of maintenance treatment with intramuscular injections of long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine, administered every 8 weeks versus every 4 weeks, to people living with HIV-1. Virologically suppressed adults with HIV-1, either already receiving intramuscular long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine every 4 weeks (ie, ATLAS study rollover participants) or oral standard of care, were randomly assigned (1:1), in an unblinded fashion, to receive either intramuscular long-acting cabotegravir (600 mg) and rilpivirine (900 mg) every 8 weeks (ie, the every 8-week dosing group) or intramuscular long-acting cabotegravir (400 mg) and rilpivirine (600 mg) every 4 weeks (ie, the every 4-week dosing group). Randomisation was generated using the GlaxoSmithKline-validated randomisation software RANDALL NG (version 1.3.3). The primary endpoint at week 48 was the proportion of participants with plasma HIV-1 RNA measurements of 50 copies per mL or more (ie, the US Food and Drug Administration [FDA] Snapshot algorithm), which has been published previously. Here, we present the week 96 results: the proportion of participants with plasma HIV-1 RNA measurements of less than 50 copies per mL (FDA Snapshot algorithm), with a non-inferiority margin of -10%; the proportion of participants with plasma HIV-1 RNA measurements of 50 copies per mL or more (FDA Snapshot algorithm), with a non-inferiority margin of 4%; the proportion of participants with protocol-defined confirmed virological failure (ie, two consecutive plasma HIV-1 RNA measurements ≥200 copies per mL); safety; pharmacokinetics; and tolerability. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT03299049, and is currently ongoing.

FINDINGS

Between Oct 27, 2017, and May 31, 2018, a total of 1149 participants were screened; of whom, 1049 (91%) were randomly assigned and 1045 (91%) initiated treatment (522 in the every 8-week dosing group and 523 in the every 4-week dosing group). The median age was 42 years (IQR 34-50). 280 (27%) of 1045 participants were assigned female at birth and 764 (73%) were white. At week 96 (FDA Snapshot algorithm), 11 (2%) of 522 participants in the every 8-week dosing group and six (1%) of 523 in the every 4-week dosing group had an HIV-1 RNA measurement of 50 copies per mL or more, with an adjusted treatment difference of 1·0 (95% CI -0·6 to 2·5), meeting the prespecified non-inferiority threshold of 4%; 475 (91%) of 522 participants in the every 8-week dosing group and 472 (90%) of 523 in the every 4-week dosing group maintained an HIV-1 RNA measurement of less than 50 copies per mL, with an adjusted treatment difference of 0·8 (95% CI -2·8 to 4·3), which met the prespecified non-inferiority threshold of -10%. One participant in the every 8-week dosing group met the confirmed virological failure criterion since the week 48 analysis at week 88, resulting in a total of nine participants in the every 8-week dosing group and two in the every 4-week dosing group having confirmed virological failure. No new safety signals were identified, and no treatment-related deaths occurred. Injection site reactions were the most common adverse event, occurring in 412 (79%) of 522 participants in the every 8-week dosing group and 400 (76%) of 523 in the every 4-week dosing group. Most injection site reactions were grade 1 or 2 (7453 [99%] of 7557 in both groups), with a median duration of 3 days (IQR 2-5).

INTERPRETATION

Long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine dosed every 8 weeks had non-inferior efficacy compared with that of every 4 weeks through the 96-week analysis, with both regimens maintaining high levels of virological suppression. These results show the durable safety, efficacy, and acceptability of dosing long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine monthly and every 2 months as maintenance therapy for people living with HIV-1.

FUNDING

ViiV Healthcare and Janssen Research & Development.

Initiation of long-acting cabotegravir plus rilpivirine as direct-to-injection or with an oral lead-in in adults with HIV-1 infection: week 124 results of the open-label phase 3 FLAIR study

BACKGROUND

Previous work established non-inferiority of switching participants who were virologically suppressed from daily oral standard of care to monthly long-acting intramuscular injections of cabotegravir plus rilpivirine over 96 weeks following a cabotegravir plus rilpivirine oral lead-in. Here, we report an evaluation of switching participants from standard of care oral regimens to long-acting cabotegravir plus rilpivirine via direct-to-injection or oral lead-in pathways.

METHODS

This study reports the week 124 results of the FLAIR study, an ongoing phase 3, randomised, open-label, multicentre (11 countries) trial. Antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naive participants who were virologically suppressed (HIV-1 RNA <50 copies per mL) during the 20-week induction phase with standard of care were randomly assigned (1:1) to continue the standard of care oral regimen or switch to long-acting cabotegravir plus rilpivirine (283 per group) in the 100-week maintenance phase. Randomisation was stratified by sex at birth and baseline (pre-induction) HIV-1 RNA (<100 000 or ≥100 000 copies per mL). Participants randomly assigned to long-acting therapy at baseline received a cabotegravir (30 mg) plus rilpivirine (25 mg) once daily oral lead-in for at least 4 weeks before first injection and could choose to continue long-acting cabotegravir (400 mg) plus rilpivirine (600 mg) every 4 weeks from week 100 or withdraw. At week 100, participants in the oral comparator ART group, in discussion with the investigator, could elect to switch to long-acting therapy (extension switch population), either direct-to-injection or with a 4 week oral lead-in (oral lead-in group), or withdraw. Week 124 endpoints included plasma HIV-1 RNA 50 or more copies per mL and less than 50 copies per mL (US Food and Drug Administration [FDA] Snapshot), confirmed virological failure (two consecutive HIV-1 RNA ≥200 copies per mL), and safety and tolerability. The study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02938520.

FINDINGS

Screening occurred between Oct 27, 2016, and March 24, 2017. At week 100, 232 (92%) of 253 participants transitioned to long-acting cabotegravir plus rilpivirine in the extension phase (111 [48%] in the direct-to-injection group and 121 [52%] in the oral lead-in group; extension switch population). 243 (86%) of the 283 who were randomly assigned to the long-acting therapy group continued the long-acting regimen into the extension phase. One (<1%) participant in each extension switch group had 50 or more HIV-1 RNA copies per mL; 110 (99%) participants in the direct-to-injection group and 113 (93%) participants in the oral lead-in group remained suppressed (HIV-1 RNA <50 copies per mL) at the week 124 Snapshot. The lower suppression rates in the oral lead-in group were driven by non-virological reasons. For participants in the randomly assigned long-acting group, 227 (80%) of 283 participants remained suppressed; at the week 124 Snapshot, 14 (5%) participants had HIV-1 RNA 50 or more copies per mL, including five additional participants since the week 96 analysis. The remaining 42 (15%) participants in the randomly assigned long-acting group had no virological data. Adverse events leading to withdrawal were infrequent, occurring in three (1%) participants in the extension switch population (one in the direct-to-injection group and two in the oral lead-in group) after 24 weeks of cabotegravir plus rilpivirine therapy, and 15 (5%) participants in the randomly assigned long-acting group up to 124 weeks of therapy. No deaths occurred in the extension phase. Overall, cabotegravir plus rilpivirine adverse event type, severity, and frequency were similar across all groups. Injection site reactions were the most common adverse event, occurring after 914 (21%) of 4442 injections in the extension switch population and 3732 (21%) of 17 392 injections in the randomly assigned long-acting group. Injection site reactions were mostly classified as mild-to-moderate in severity and decreased in incidence over time. Four (2%) of 232 participants in the extension switch population and seven (2%) of 283 in the randomly assigned long-acting group withdrew due to injection-related reasons.

INTERPRETATION

After 24 weeks of follow-up, switching to long-acting treatment with or without an oral lead-in phase had similar safety, tolerability, and efficacy, supporting future evaluation of the simpler direct-to-injection approach. The week 124 results for participants randomly assigned originally to the long-acting therapy show long-acting cabotegravir plus rilpivirine remains a durable maintenance therapy with a favourable safety profile.

FUNDING

ViiV Healthcare and Janssen Research & Development.

Selective elimination of host cells harboring replication-competent human immunodeficiency virus reservoirs: a promising therapeutic strategy for HIV cure

ABSTRACT

Many seminal advances have been made in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/AIDS research over the past four decades. Treatment strategies, such as gene therapy and immunotherapy, are yielding promising results to effectively control HIV infection. Despite this, a cure for HIV/AIDS is not envisioned in the near future. A recently published academic study has raised awareness regarding a promising alternative therapeutic option for HIV/AIDS, referred to as "selective elimination of host cells capable of producing HIV" (SECH). Similar to the "shock and kill strategy," the SECH approach requires the simultaneous administration of drugs targeting key mechanisms in specific cells to efficiently eliminate HIV replication-competent cellular reservoirs. Herein, we comprehensively review the specific mechanisms targeted by the SECH strategy. Briefly, the suggested cocktail of drugs should contain (i) latency reversal agents to promote the latency reversal process in replication-competent reservoir cells, (ii) pro-apoptotic and anti-autophagy drugs to induce death of infected cells through various pathways, and finally (iii) drugs that eliminate new cycles of infection by prevention of HIV attachment to host cells, and by HIV integrase inhibitor drugs. Finally, we discuss three major challenges that are likely to restrict the application of the SECH strategy in HIV/AIDS patients.

Efficacy, Safety, and Durability of Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine in Adults With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Infection: 5-Year Results From the LATTE-2 Study

Background

In the Long-Acting Antiretroviral Treatment Enabling Trial 2 (LATTE-2) phase 2b study, long-acting (LA) injectable cabotegravir + rilpivirine dosed every 8 weeks (Q8W) or every 4 weeks (Q4W) demonstrated comparable efficacy with daily oral antiretroviral therapy (ART) through 96 weeks in ART-naive adults with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Here we report efficacy, tolerability, and safety of cabotegravir + rilpivirine LA over approximately 5 years.

Methods

After 20 weeks of oral cabotegravir + abacavir/lamivudine, participants were randomized to cabotegravir + rilpivirine LA Q8W or Q4W or continue oral ART through the 96-week maintenance period. In the extension period through week 256, participants continued their current LA regimen (randomized Q8W/Q4W groups) or switched from oral ART to Q8W or Q4W LA therapy (extension-switch groups). Endpoints assessed included proportion of participants with HIV-1 RNA <50 copies/mL (Snapshot algorithm) and adverse events (AEs).

Results

At week 256, 186 of 230 (81%) participants in randomized Q8W/Q4W groups and 41 of 44 (93%) participants in extension-switch groups had HIV-1 RNA <50 copies/mL. No protocol-defined virologic failures occurred after week 48. Injection wsite reactions infrequently resulted in discontinuation (4 [2%] and 1 [2%] participants in randomized Q8W/Q4W and extension-switch groups, respectively). Three participants in randomized Q8W/Q4W groups experienced drug-related serious AEs, including 1 fatal serious AE (Q4W group); none occurred in extension-switch groups. Of 25 participants with AEs leading to withdrawal, 20 were in the randomized Q4W group; no AE leading to withdrawal occurred in >1 participant.

Conclusions

Cabotegravir + rilpivirine LA exhibited long-term efficacy and tolerability, demonstrating its durability as maintenance therapy for HIV-1 infection.

Clinical Trials Registration. NCT02120352.

Long-acting antiretrovirals: a new era for the management and prevention of HIV infection

The long-acting antiretroviral cabotegravir and rilpivirine combination has just received FDA, EMA and Health Canada approval. This novel drug delivery approach is about to revolutionize the therapy of people living with HIV, decreasing the 365 daily pill burden to only six intramuscular injections per year. In addition, islatravir, a first-in-class nucleoside reverse transcriptase translocation inhibitor, is intended to be formulated as an implant with a dosing interval of 1 year or more. At present, long-acting antiretroviral therapies (LA-ARTs) are given at fixed standard doses, irrespectively of the patient's weight and BMI, and without consideration for host genetic and non-genetic factors likely influencing their systemic disposition. Despite a few remaining challenges related to administration (e.g. pain, dedicated medical procedure), the development and implementation of LA-ARTs can overcome long-term adherence issues by improving patients' privacy and reducing social stigma associated with the daily oral intake of anti-HIV treatments. Yet, the current 'one-size-fits-all' approach does not account for the recognized significant inter-individual variability in LA-ART pharmacokinetics. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM), an important tool for precision medicine, may provide physicians with valuable information on actual drug exposure in patients, contributing to improve their management in real life. The present review aims to update the current state of knowledge on these novel promising LA-ARTs and discusses their implications, particularly from a clinical pharmacokinetics perspective, for the future management and prevention of HIV infection, issues of ongoing importance in the absence of curative treatment or an effective vaccine.

Significant Publications on Infectious Diseases Pharmacotherapy in 2020

Purpose. To summarize the most highly esteemed, peer-reviewed, infectious diseases (ID) pharmacotherapy articles published in 2020. Summary. Members of the Houston Infectious Diseases Network (HIDN) nominated articles that were deemed to have noteworthy contributions to ID pharmacotherapy in 2020, including those on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). To select the most significant articles of 2020, a survey was created and distributed to members of the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists (SIDP) to vote on their top 10 articles of general ID and COVID-19 pharmacotherapy and one noteworthy HIV/AIDS publication. A total of 40 articles were nominated by HIDN: 35 articles pertaining to general ID/COVID-19 pharmacotherapy and 5 articles with HIV/AIDS involvement. Of the 247 SIDP members who responded to the survey, 205 and 42 members voted for general ID/COVID-19 pharmacotherapy articles and HIV/AIDS related articles, respectively. The top publications are summarized. Conclusion. In a taxing year of a global pandemic, the abundant and rapid distribution of ID literature has made it challenging for clinicians to stay informed of significant publications across the ID spectrum. This review summarizes significant ID-related publications in 2020 with the goal of aiding clinicians in staying up to date on the most relevant publications in ID pharmacotherapy.

Dolutegravir Inhibition of Matrix Metalloproteinases Affects Mouse Neurodevelopment

Dolutegravir (DTG) is a first-line antiretroviral drug (ARV) used in combination therapy for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) infection. The drug is effective, safe, and well tolerated. Nonetheless, concerns have recently emerged for its usage in pregnant women or those of child-bearing age. Notably, DTG-based ARV regimens have been linked to birth defects seen as a consequence of periconceptional usages. To this end, uncovering an underlying mechanism for DTG-associated adverse fetal development outcomes has gained clinical and basic research interest. We now report that DTG inhibits matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) activities that could affect fetal neurodevelopment. DTG is a broad-spectrum MMPs inhibitor and binds to Zn⁺⁺ at the enzyme’s catalytic domain. Studies performed in pregnant mice show that DTG readily reaches the fetal central nervous system during gestation and inhibits MMP activity. Postnatal screenings of brain health in mice pups identified neuroinflammation and neuronal impairment. These abnormalities persist as a consequence of in utero DTG exposure. We conclude that DTG inhibition of MMPs activities during gestation has the potential to affect prenatal and postnatal neurodevelopment.

Exploring predictors of HIV-1 virologic failure to long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine: a multivariable analysis

OBJECTIVE

Efficacy and safety of long-acting cabotegravir (CAB) and rilpivirine (RPV) dosed intramuscularly every 4 or 8 weeks has been demonstrated in three Phase 3 trials. Here, factors associated with virologic failure at Week 48 were evaluated post hoc.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Data from 1039 adults naive to long-acting CAB+RPV were pooled in a multivariable analysis to examine the influence of baseline viral and participant factors, dosing regimen and drug concentrations on confirmed virologic failure (CVF) occurrence using a logistic regression model. In a separate model, baseline factors statistically associated with CVF were further evaluated to understand CVF risk when present alone or in combination.

RESULTS

Overall, 1.25% (n = 13/1039) of participants experienced CVF. Proviral RPV resistance-associated mutations (RAMs), HIV-1 subtype A6/A1, higher BMI (associated with Week 8 CAB trough concentration) and lower Week 8 RPV trough concentrations were significantly associated (P < 0.05) with increased odds of CVF (all except RPV trough are knowable at baseline). Few participants (0.4%) with zero or one baseline factor had CVF. Only a combination of at least two baseline factors (observed in 3.4%; n = 35/1039) was associated with increased CVF risk (25.7%, n = 9/35).

CONCLUSION

CVF is an infrequent multifactorial event, with a rate of approximately 1% in the long-acting CAB+RPV arms across Phase 3 studies (FLAIR, ATLAS and ATLAS-2M) through Week 48. Presence of at least two of proviral RPV RAMs, HIV-1 subtype A6/A1 and/or BMI at least 30 kg/m2 was associated with increased CVF risk. These findings support the use of long-acting CAB+RPV in routine clinical practice.

Formulary Drug Review: Cabotegravir

Each month, subscribers to The Formulary Monograph Service receive 5 to 6 well-documented monographs on drugs that are newly released or are in late phase 3 trials. The monographs are targeted to Pharmacy and Therapeutics Committees. Subscribers also receive monthly 1-page summary monographs on agents that are useful for agendas and pharmacy/nursing in-services. A comprehensive target drug utilization evaluation/medication use evaluation (DUE/MUE) is also provided each month. With a subscription, the monographs are available online to subscribers. Monographs can be customized to meet the needs of a facility. Through the cooperation of The Formulary, Hospital Pharmacy publishes selected reviews in this column. For more information about The Formulary Monograph Service, contact Wolters Kluwer customer service at 866-397-3433.

Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging to characterize cabotegravir long-acting formulation depot kinetics in healthy adult volunteers

AIM

Cabotegravir long-acting (LA) intramuscular (IM) injection is being investigated for HIV preexposure prophylaxis due to its potent antiretroviral activity and infrequent dosing requirement. A subset of healthy adult volunteers participating in a Phase I study assessing cabotegravir tissue pharmacokinetics underwent serial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to assess drug depot localization and kinetics following a single cabotegravir LA IM targeted injection.

METHODS

Eight participants (four men, four women) were administered cabotegravir LA 600 mg under ultrasonographic-guided injection targeting the gluteal muscles. MRI was performed to determine injection-site location in gluteal muscle (IM), subcutaneous (SC) adipose tissue and combined IM/SC compartments, and to quantify drug depot characteristics, including volume and surface area, on Days 1 (≤2 hours postinjection), 3 and 8. Linear regression analysis examined correlations between MRI-derived parameters and plasma cabotegravir exposure metrics, including maximum observed concentration (C_max ) and partial area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) through Weeks 4 and 8.

RESULTS

Cabotegravir LA depot locations varied by participant and were identified in the IM compartment (n = 2), combined IM/SC compartments (n = 4), SC compartment (n = 1) and retroperitoneal cavity (n = 1). Although several MRI parameter and exposure metric correlations were determined, total depot surface area on Day 1 strongly correlated with plasma cabotegravir concentration at Days 3 and 8, C_max and partial AUC through Weeks 4 and 8.

CONCLUSION

MRI clearly delineated cabotegravir LA injection-site location and depot kinetics in healthy adults. Although injection-site variability was observed, drug depot surface area correlated with both plasma C_max and partial AUC independently of anatomical distribution.

Multicompartmental pharmacokinetic evaluation of long-acting cabotegravir in healthy adults for HIV preexposure prophylaxis

Aims

Cabotegravir is an integrase strand transfer inhibitor in clinical development as long‐acting (LA) injectable HIV preexposure prophylaxis.

Methods

This phase I study assessed pharmacokinetics of cabotegravir in plasma and anatomical sites associated with sexual HIV‐1 transmission after repeated oral and single intramuscular (IM) LA dosing in healthy adults. Following a 28‐day oral lead‐in period of cabotegravir 30 mg and a washout period of 14–42 days, participants were administered a single ultrasound‐guided gluteal IM cabotegravir LA 600‐mg injection. The study objective was to characterize cabotegravir concentrations in plasma, cervical, vaginal and rectal tissues, and cervicovaginal and rectal fluids and up to Week 12 after IM injection.

Results

Nineteen participants enrolled and 16 completed the study through Week 52. Cabotegravir was detected in plasma and all tissues and fluids. Median plasma cabotegravir concentrations exceeded the in vitro protein‐adjusted 90% maximal inhibitory concentration through Week 12. Median tissue‐ and fluid‐to‐plasma cabotegravir concentration ratios across all visits were 0.32 for rectal fluid and 0.08–0.16 for other tissues and fluids. Adjusted R² coefficients between cabotegravir concentrations in plasma and cervical, vaginal and rectal tissues were 0.78, 0.79 and 0.90, respectively. Injection‐site reactions were common (88% of participants) and were mostly grade 1 in intensity (82%). Two participants reported 11 non–drug‐related serious adverse events.

Conclusion

Concentrations of cabotegravir in tissues and fluids were proportional to plasma over time, with strong correlations between tissue and plasma concentrations. Cabotegravir LA tissue‐to‐plasma ratios may be important for understanding its use as preexposure prophylaxis.

Therapeutic review of cabotegravir/rilpivirine long-acting antiretroviral injectable and implementation considerations at an HIV specialty clinic

Cabotegravir/rilpivirine (CAB/RPV) was recently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as the first complete parenteral antiretroviral (ART) regimen for treatment of people living with HIV (PLWH). As a monthly intramuscular (IM) injection, this therapy constitutes a major departure from the traditional paradigm of oral therapy requiring (at least) daily administration that has defined HIV treatment for decades. Composed of a second-generation integrase inhibitor (INSTI) and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI), CAB/RPV has achieved high rates of sustained virologic suppression with a favorable safety profile for treatment-experienced PLWH following oral lead-in (OLI) during several clinical trials. In addition to the clinical benefits of this agent, patient-reported outcomes associated with convenience, confidentiality, and the tolerability of the injections have consistently reflected positive perceptions of CAB/RPV. The novel nature of this therapy in the field of HIV presents logistical challenges. Clinics will need to address barriers related to management of clinic workflow, procurement, reimbursement, and nonadherence. The aim of this review was to summarize the available safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) data of this long-acting (LA) injectable regimen as well as discuss some potential considerations for prescribing and operationalization.

Emerging drugs for the treatment of HIV/AIDS: a review of 2019/2020 phase II and III trials

Introduction: The study of emerging drug trials to treat people living with HIV (PLWH) helps to understand any advantages and disadvantages of therapies that will be available on the market in the short-term future as well as the mechanisms underlying a better cure.Areas covered: This review analyzes phase 2 and 3 clinical trials published between 2019 and 2020 concerning six different emerging drugs. The majority of the trials focus on long acting drugs, but also on new orally administered compounds.Expert opinion: The biggest news in antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the approval of cabotegravir/rilpivirine as a complete long-acting (LA) therapeutic regimen. It paves the way for an innovation that may change the paradigms of HIV treatment in the long term, albeit it will not be obvious to implement and treatment adherence still needs to be fully evaluated. Results of phase 3 Islatravir trials are awaited. Lenacapavir may soon reach phase 3. These drugs may pave the way for 6-month ART in the next future. Fostemsavir has been recently approved. Albuvirtide, a fusion inhibitor approved in China, presents several limitations for its intravenous use only. UB-421 and VRC01 are monoclonal antibodies against HIV. This emerging technology has shown interesting results but needs further studies.

Patient-Reported Outcomes Through 1 Year of an HIV-1 Clinical Trial Evaluating Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine Administered Every 4 or 8 Weeks (ATLAS-2M)

BACKGROUND

Advances in HIV-1 therapeutics have led to the development of a range of daily oral treatment regimens, which share similar high efficacy rates. Consequently, more emphasis is being placed upon the individual's experience of treatment and impact on quality of life. The first long-acting injectable antiretroviral therapy for HIV-1 (long-acting cabotegravir + rilpivirine [CAB + RPV LA]) may address challenges associated with oral treatment for HIV-1, such as stigma, pill burden/fatigue, drug-food interactions, and adherence. Patient-reported outcomes (PROs) collected in an HIV-1 clinical trial (ATLAS-2M; NCT03299049) comparing participants' experience with two dosing regimens (every 4 weeks [Q4W] vs. every 8 weeks [Q8W]) of CAB + RPV LA are presented herein.

METHODS

PRO endpoints evaluated through 48 weeks of therapy included treatment satisfaction (HIV Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire [HIVTSQ]), treatment acceptance ("General Acceptance" domain of the Chronic Treatment Acceptance [ACCEPT^®] questionnaire), acceptability of injections (Perception of Injection [PIN] questionnaire), treatment preference (questionnaire), and reasons for switching to/continuing long-acting therapy (exploratory endpoint; questionnaire). Participants were randomized 1:1 to receive CAB + RPV LA Q8W or Q4W. Results were stratified by prior CAB + RPV exposure in either preplanned or post hoc analyses.

RESULTS

Overall, 1045 participants were randomized to the Q8W (n = 522) and Q4W (n = 523) regimens; 37% (n = 391/1045) had previously received CAB + RPV in ATLAS. For participants without prior CAB + RPV exposure, large increases from baseline were reported in treatment satisfaction in both long-acting arms (HIVTSQ status version), with Q8W dosing statistically significantly favored at Weeks 24 (p = 0.036) and 48 (p = 0.004). Additionally, improvements from baseline were also observed in the "General Acceptance" domain of the ACCEPT questionnaire in both long-acting arms for participants without prior CAB + RPV exposure; however, no statistically significant difference was observed between arms at either timepoint (Week 24, p = 0.379; Week 48, p = 0.525). Significant improvements (p < 0.001) in the "Acceptance of Injection Site Reactions" domain of the PIN questionnaire were observed from Week 8 to Weeks 24 and 48 in both arms for participants without prior CAB + RPV exposure. Participants with prior CAB + RPV exposure reported high treatment satisfaction (mean [HIVTSQ status version]: Q8W 62.2/66.0; Q4W 62.0/66.0), treatment acceptance (mean: Q8W 89.3/100; Q4W 91.2/100), and acceptance of injection site reactions (mean [5 = not at all acceptable; 1 = totally acceptable]: Q8W 1.72; Q4W 1.59) at baseline/Week 8 that were maintained over time. Participants without prior CAB + RPV exposure who received Q8W dosing preferred this regimen over oral CAB + RPV (98%, n = 300/306). Among those with prior Q4W exposure, 94% (n = 179/191) preferred Q8W dosing versus Q4W dosing (3%, n = 6/191) or oral CAB + RPV (2%, n = 4/191).

CONCLUSIONS

Both long-acting regimens provided high treatment satisfaction and acceptance, irrespective of prior CAB + RPV exposure, with most participants preferring Q8W dosing over both the Q4W regimen and their previous daily oral regimen. The PRO data collected at Week 48 support the therapeutic potential of CAB + RPV LA.

FUNDING

ViiV Healthcare and Janssen.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ATLAS-2M: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03299049, registered October 2, 2017.

A qualitative assessment in acceptability and barriers to use pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among men who have sex with men: implications for service delivery in Vietnam

Background

HIV Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is being considered for implementation among MSM nationwide in Vietnam. However, there may be concerns about potential obstacles for PrEP adherence among Vietnamese MSM. This study aims to assess the acceptability to use PrEP, potential barriers and facilitators, and the preferences for PrEP service accessibility and delivery among Vietnamese MSM.

Methods

Four focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with 30 HIV-negative MSM in January 2018 in Hanoi, Vietnam. FGDs explored MSM’s awareness regarding PrEP, perceived benefits and barriers of PrEP use, and willingness to use PrEP. FGDs were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Content analysis was used.

Results

The mean age of participants was 23.9 years old. Most participants realized the advantages of PrEP given its efficacy in HIV risk reduction and expressed high motivation and interest to use PrEP in the future. PrEP was considered as a supplement alongside condoms. Common concerns about PrEP included side-effects, forgetting to take the pill daily, stigmatization due to using PrEP, negative attitudes toward PrEP from other MSM and accessibility of PrEP. Participants would prefer an injectable PrEP regime if available as it was seen as easier to adhere to. Concerns were also raised that PrEP usage could be interpreted as an indication of engaging in sexual risk behavior for HIV, potentially causing suspicion in love relationships or by family and friends. Participants preferred to receive PrEP in civil business organizations and MSM-friendly clinics, and recommended that pharmacy stores would not be suitable for PrEP implementation due to lack of trust and fear of fake drugs.

Conclusion

This study indicated a high level of willingness to use PrEP among MSM in Vietnam in combination with condom. Strategies to raise awareness of PrEP, reduce stigma towards PrEP, and improve the accessibility among MSM in Vietnam is needed. Existing MSM-friendly clinics were recommended to implement PrEP programs in Vietnam.

Long-Acting Cabotegravir for HIV/AIDS Prophylaxis

The retrovirus HIV-1 is the etiological agent of the decades-long AIDS pandemic. Although vaccination is the most common preexposure route to prevent acquisition of viral disease, scalable efficacious vaccination strategies have yet to be developed for HIV-1. By contrast, small molecule inhibitors of the HIV-1 enzymes reverse transcriptase, integrase, and protease have been developed that effectively block virus replication. Three different drug compounds are commonly prescribed for people living with HIV as once-daily oral tablets. Once-daily pills composed of two different reverse transcriptase inhibitors are moreover approved as preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) treatment for virus naïve individuals who may partake in behaviors associated with increased risk of HIV-1 acquisition such as unprotected sex or injection drug use. Long-acting (LA) injectable HIV-1 enzyme inhibitors are at the same time being developed to sidestep adherence noncompliance issues that can arise from self-administered once-daily oral dosing regimens. Cabotegravir (CAB)-LA, which inhibits integrase strand transfer activity, has in recent clinical trials been shown to prevent HIV-1 acquisition more effectively than once-daily oral dosed reverse transcriptase inhibitors. In this Perspective, we examine bench to bedside aspects of CAB-LA treatment and development, starting from the biochemical basis of HIV-1 integration and pharmacological inhibition of integrase catalysis. We also review the results of recent clinical trials that evaluated CAB-LA, as well as the promises and challenges that surround its use for HIV/AIDS PrEP.

Hepatotoxicity of Contemporary Antiretroviral Drugs: A Review and Evaluation of Published Clinical Data

Contemporary antiretroviral agents afford enhanced potency and safety for patients living with HIV. Newer antiretroviral drugs are often better tolerated than those initially approved in the early stages of the HIV epidemic. While the safety profile has improved, adverse drug reactions still occur. We have segregated the antiretroviral agents used in contemporary practice into class groupings based on their mechanism of antiviral activity (non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, integrase inhibitors, protease inhibitors, and entry inhibitors) while providing a review and discussion of the hepatoxicity seen in the most relevant clinical literature published to date. Clinical literature for individual agents is discussed and agent comparisons afforded within each group in tabular format. Our review will provide a summative overview of the incidence and medications associated with hepatic adverse reactions linked to the use of contemporary antiretroviral drugs.

Prevalence of genotypic baseline risk factors for cabotegravir + rilpivirine failure among ARV-naive patients

BACKGROUND

Multivariable baseline factor analysis across cabotegravir + rilpivirine clinical trials showed that HIV-1 subtypes A6/A1 and the presence of rilpivirine resistance-associated mutations (RAMs) were associated with an increased risk of virological failure of this dual therapy. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of genotypic baseline risk factors for cabotegravir + rilpivirine failure among ARV-naive patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From 2010 to 2020, 4212 sequences from ARV-naive patients were collected from three large Parisian academic hospital genotypic databases. Cabotegravir and rilpivirine RAMs were defined according to the ANRS algorithm.

RESULTS

Among 4212 ARV-naive patients, 38.6% were infected with subtype B, 32.4% with CRF02_AG (32.4%) and 5.1% with subtype A (85.5% being A6/A1 subtype). Overall, the presence of at least one cabotegravir or rilpivirine RAM was 16.2% and 14.3%, respectively. Considering genotypic resistance interpretation, using the ANRS algorithm, 0.74% (n = 31), 7.3% (n = 306) and 0.09% (n = 4) of sequences were resistant to cabotegravir, rilpivirine or both, respectively. The overall prevalence of L74I in integrase and E138A in RT was 13.0% and 3.2%, respectively, and stable over the decade. Thus, adding 183 subtype A6/A1 sequences to 244 sequences interpreted as resistant to rilpivirine led to 427 (10.1%) sequences combining both baseline virological risk factors for cabotegravir + rilpivirine dual-therapy failure.

CONCLUSIONS

Among large sequence databases, when adding prevalence of rilpivirine-resistant viruses and HIV-1 subtype A6/A1 sequences, 10.1% of patients would not be eligible for cabotegravir + rilpivirine dual therapy. These data re-emphasize the need for a pre-therapeutic genotypic resistance test to detect polymorphisms and transmitted drug resistance and to define HIV-1 subtype.

Liver Fibrosis during Antiretroviral Treatment in HIV-Infected Individuals. Truth or Tale?

After the introduction of antiretroviral treatment (ART) back in 1996, the lifespan of people living with HIV (PLWH) has been substantially increased, while the major causes of morbidity and mortality have switched from opportunistic infections and AIDS-related neoplasms to cardiovascular and liver diseases. HIV itself may lead to liver damage and subsequent liver fibrosis (LF) through multiple pathways. Apart from HIV, viral hepatitis, alcoholic and especially non-alcoholic liver diseases have been implicated in liver involvement among PLWH. Another well known cause of hepatotoxicity is ART, raising clinically significant concerns about LF in long-term treatment. In this review we present the existing data and analyze the association of LF with all ART drug classes. Published data derived from many studies are to some extent controversial and therefore remain inconclusive. Among all the antiretroviral drugs, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, especially didanosine and zidovudine, seem to carry the greatest risk for LF, with integrase strand transfer inhibitors and entry inhibitors having minimal risk. Surprisingly, even though protease inhibitors often lead to insulin resistance, they do not seem to be associated with a significant risk of LF. In conclusion, most ART drugs are safe in long-term treatment and seldom lead to severe LF when no liver-related co-morbidities exist.

Long-acting cabotegravir plus rilpivirine for treatment in adults with HIV-1 infection: 96-week results of the randomised, open-label, phase 3 FLAIR study

BACKGROUND

There is a need for more convenient, less frequent treatment to help address challenges associated with daily oral HIV treatment in people living with HIV, including stigma, pill burden, drug-food interactions, and adherence. The phase 3 ATLAS and FLAIR studies showed non-inferiority of long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine dosed every 4 weeks compared with standard oral therapy for the maintenance of virological suppression in adults with HIV-1 over 48 weeks. We present the 96-week findings.

METHODS

FLAIR is a randomised, phase 3, open-label, multicentre study done in 11 countries investigating whether switching to long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine is non-inferior to daily dolutegravir, abacavir, and lamivudine in virologically suppressed adults living with HIV-1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naive participants received induction therapy with daily oral dolutegravir (50 mg), abacavir (600 mg), and lamivudine (300 mg) for 20 weeks. After 16 weeks, participants with less than 50 HIV-1 RNA copies per mL were randomly assigned (1:1) to continue the standard of care regimen (standard care group) or switch to receive daily oral cabotegravir 30 mg and rilpivirine 25 mg for at least 4 weeks followed by long-acting cabotegravir 400 mg and rilpivirine 600 mg, administered as two 2 mL intramuscular injections, every 4 weeks for at least 96 weeks (long-acting group). Randomisation was stratified by baseline (preinduction) HIV-1 RNA (<100 000 or ≥100 000 copies per mL) and sex at birth and used GlaxoSmithKline-verified randomisation software (RandAll NG, version 1.3.3) for treatment assignment. The primary endpoint was the proportion of participants with plasma HIV-1 RNA of 50 copies per mL or more assessed as per the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Snapshot algorithm at week 48, which has been reported previously. Here, we report the proportion of participants with 50 or more HIV-1 RNA copies per mL using the FDA Snapshot algorithm at week 96 (intention-to-treat population; non-inferiority margin 6%). The trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02938520.

FINDINGS

Between Oct 27, 2016, and March 24, 2017, 809 participants were screened. 631 (78%) participants entered the induction phase and 566 (70%) were randomly assigned to either the standard care group (283 [50%] participants) or the long-acting group (283 [50%]). Median age was 34 years (IQR 29 to 43), 62 (11%) were 50 years or older, 127 (22%) were women (sex at birth), and 419 (74%) were white. At week 96, nine (3%) participants in each arm had 50 or more HIV-1 RNA copies per mL, with an adjusted difference of 0·0 (95% CI -2·9 to 2·9), consistent with non-inferiority established at week 48. Across both treatment groups, adverse events leading to withdrawal were infrequent (14 [5%] participants in the long-acting group and four [1%] in the standard care group). Injection site reactions were the most common adverse event, reported by 245 (88%) participants in the long-acting group; their frequency decreased over time. Median injection site reaction duration was 3 days (IQR 2 to 4), and 3082 (99%) of 3100 reactions were grade 1 or 2. No deaths occurred during the maintenance phase.

INTERPRETATION

The 96-week results reaffirm the 48-week results, showing long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine continued to be non-inferior compared with continuing a standard care regimen in adults with HIV-1 for the maintenance of viral suppression. These results support the durability of long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine, over an almost 2-year-long period, as a therapeutic option for virally suppressed adults with HIV-1.

FUNDING

ViiV Healthcare and Janssen Research and Development.

Pharmacokinetics and Drug-Drug Interactions of Long-Acting Intramuscular Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine

Combined antiretroviral treatments have significantly improved the morbidity and mortality related to HIV infection, thus transforming HIV infection into a chronic disease; however, the efficacy of antiretroviral treatments is highly dependent on the ability of infected individuals to adhere to life-long drug combination therapies. A major milestone in HIV treatment is the marketing of the long-acting intramuscular antiretroviral drugs cabotegravir and rilpivirine, allowing for infrequent drug administration, with the potential to improve adherence to therapy and treatment satisfaction. Intramuscular administration of cabotegravir and rilpivirine leads to differences in pharmacokinetics and drug-drug interaction (DDI) profiles compared with oral administration. A notable difference is the long elimination half-life with intramuscular administration, which reaches 5.6-11.5 weeks for cabotegravir and 13-28 weeks for rilpivirine, compared with 41 and 45 h, respectively, with their oral administration. Cabotegravir and rilpivirine have a low potential to cause DDIs, however these drugs can be victims of DDIs. Cabotegravir is mainly metabolized by UGT1A1, and rilpivirine is mainly metabolized by CYP3A4, therefore these agents are susceptible to DDIs with inhibitors, and particularly inducers of drug-metabolizing enzymes. Intramuscular administration of cabotegravir and rilpivirine has the advantage of eliminating DDIs occurring at the gastrointestinal level, however interactions can still occur at the hepatic level. This review provides insight on the intramuscular administration of drugs and summarizes the pharmacology of long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine. Particular emphasis is placed on DDI profiles after oral and intramuscular administration of these antiretroviral drugs.

Cabotegravir-Rilpivirine: The First Complete Long-Acting Injectable Regimen for the Treatment of HIV-1 Infection

Objective:

To review the efficacy and safety of cabotegravir (CAB) with rilpivirine (RPV) in the treatment of HIV-1 infection.

Data Sources:

A literature search was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar (2010 to January 2021) with the search terms cabotegravir and rilpivirine. Other resources included abstracts presented at recent conferences and the manufacturer’s website and prescribing information.

Study Selection:

All English-language articles of studies assessing the efficacy and safety of CAB with RPV were included.

Data Synthesis:

The combination of CAB, a new integrase strand transfer inhibitor, and RPV, an established nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, is the first long-acting dual therapy approved for the treatment of HIV-1 infection in adults who have achieved viral suppression on a standard antiretroviral therapy (ART). This regimen demonstrated comparable maintenance of viral suppression evaluated up to 160 weeks, with low rates of virological failure. CAB and RPV are available as suspension given intramuscularly in 2 separate injections every 4 weeks. Common adverse effects include injection site reactions, pyrexia, fatigue, and headache. CAB and RPV are also available as tablets given orally for bridging therapy.

Relevance to Patient Care and Clinical Practice:

This long-acting dual therapy represents an attractive option with a high barrier to resistance for adults who have achieved viral suppression on standard ART and who prefer monthly injections over daily oral therapy.

Conclusions:

CAB-RPV is the first complete long-acting injectable that provides a convenient way to maintain viral suppression with no negative effects on renal and bone health and few drug interactions.